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Football training: the demands of the game and the
attributes required for specific football positions
Football players need specific physical and skill based attributes
for each position
By: Simon Thadani
Football conditioning has become much more specific and scientific. Professional
players are now subject to a rigorous fitness regime to get them – and crucially
maintain them – as match ready as possible, but this does not mean that all players
train exactly the same
Football is changing, whether we like it or not, and over the seven years I have worked
with Pro Zone (a match analysis system) it has become very noticeable that
Championship and Premiership players seem to be working more intensely, covering
more distance on the pitch, year in year out (see the future of conditioning within
football). Therefore, training must continue to reflect the ever-changing demands of
the game. Football is a skilled team based sport, all about technique, decision making
and creative play. It is a continuous, multi-directional, multi-paced, explosive sport
but with an aerobic foundation. In terms of the overall playing demands across the
year, it is a marathon and not a sprint. A game is played on average every five days for
nine months.
I have the highest respect for boxers, rugby players and track and field athletes, to
such an extent that I spend a lot of time talking to the respective sports’ coaches and
participants. I look at their training methods and their physical and mental approach.
There is a lot to learn from them. This has made me a better conditioning coach and
hopefully in turn improved my players’ condition. But I believe that football is unique,
in regard to the short-, mid- and long-term demands of a season. Other sportsmen and
sportswomen may say that footballers have an easy life, that they don’t work enough,
or are not fit or strong and so on. To these my reply has always been: come and join in
for a few weeks or look at the training programme, remembering of course what you
have to do with a ball. You need supreme physical condition and playing skill. Over the
years, several different athletes from different sports have done this and I would like
to think they have changed their opinion in consequence. I’m sure, though, that this
change in opinion would be the same if a footballer participated in the training
regimes of these other athletes’ sports. Yes, football can learn from other sports, but
the game itself, ex-players, coaches, managers, other teams’ methods at home and
abroad, can teach football more.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The demands of the game
The actual demands of a game
Let’s now take a look at what players do in an average match, based on playing
position. As I pointed out in my other articles there is 10-30% different in the fitness
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levels between amateur and professional players. By understanding the demands of
the game, specific to position, it will be easier to design position specific drills and
training programmes. I use the following acronym to assist with specific player
conditioning FITT - this stands for, Frequency, Intensity, Type and Time.
Full backs Total distance covered 11.22km
High intensity distance covered 1130m
Sprint distance covered 350m
Number of high intensity activities 157
Number of sprints 54
Centre backs Total distance covered 10.32km
High intensity distance covered 764m
Sprint distance covered 211m
Number of high intensity activities 112
Number of sprints 33
Wide Total distance covered 11.70km
Midfield High intensity distance covered 1390m
Sprint distance covered 430m
Number of high intensity activities 182
Number of sprints 63
Central Total distance covered 11.73km
Midfield High intensity distance covered 1144m
Sprint distance covered 302m
Number of high intensity activities 169
Number of sprints 49
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The following statistics are provided by ProZone:
Attacker Total distance covered 10.72km
High intensity distance covered 106m
Sprint distance covered 351m
Number of high intensity activities 142
Number of sprints 51
Note: attacker = either the ‘target’ or ‘channel man’
Key to figures
Distance covered, from walking to sprinting in 90 minutes
High Intensity >5.5 metres per second
Sprints > 7.0 metres per second
These stats do not show that players will change direction over 1,000 times and turn
(over 120 degrees or more) 450 times a match. Also not shown is the time between
each high intensity effort ¬– this is on average 60 seconds for centre backs, 32 seconds
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for fullbacks, 34 seconds for wide midfielders, 36 seconds for centre midfielders and
39 seconds for centre forwards. Also not shown is the number of tackles and jumps etc
made. These are very important factors because turning, twisting, changing
directions, jumping and tackling take a lot out of players physically.
Despite some experts’ beliefs that each outfield playing position should have a certain
physical standard/profile (body type) so that you get the best out of them playing
wise, I disagree. Yes, generally speaking it might be advantageous if an attacker is
6’3’ and well-built, but I believe that if the player has other exceptional attributes,
then it doesn’t matter what height or body type they have. Footballing ability will
often outweigh physical attributes. Look at the Spanish national team’s victory over
Germany in the recent European Championship final, they were much slighter than the
more heavily built Germans. Then there are players like Roberto Carlos, Lionel Messi,
Michael Owen, Fabio Cannavaro, Aaron Lennon, Shaun Wright Philips and Deco, the list
is endless, of these great but not physically big players.
A guide to the physical attributes required for players
related to their playing position
For me every player needs to be fit, strong, agile and fast. In the perfect team all the
players would possess these attributes. However, we don’t live in a perfect world. I
have therefore identified the key training requirements of players according to
position. Speed, stamina and mental attitude will be the key underpinning elements,
for all positions.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Footballers can come in all shapes and sizes
Centre backs
• Powerful, dynamic strength
• Physically strong under contact situations
• Vertical, single leg jumping power
• Balanced – rarely talked about in fitness, but important in this position
• Agile – must be able to turn quickly in both directions
• Anaerobically very fit position, lots of explosive training required
• High endurance capacity not needed – can get away with a relatively low VO2max
(VO2max is a measure of the body’s oxygen processing capability)
• Ideally have pace – becomes more important if the player is not physically that big
• Should enjoy the contact side of the sport
• Must be very mentally strong
Full backs
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• High aerobic capacity (looking for a VO2max of 63/64ml of oxygen per kg of body
weight)
• Some top managers expect full backs to be the fittest players in the team
• Speed endurance work is very important
• The modern game is tending to use taller players in this position although this is not
essential
• Aerobic recovery interval training (based on heart rate) is important
• Players with pace will stand out in this position
• Good aerobic foundation is essential. They are the ‘engine room of the team’
• Physically the team’s ‘all rounder’ does a lot of everything
• Holding midfielders, strong, agile and good in the tackle
• Advanced midfielders are ‘box to box’, high intensity players, training must reflect
this, will need to do, for example, more longer sprint work
• Ideally should be two-footed
• Are always twisting, turning and changing directions, must therefore have very good
local muscular endurance and be very highly fatigue resistant
• Pace – this will be very much a bonus
Wide midfielders
• Some of the fittest players in the team - VO2max of 63/64 ml/kg/body wt
• Good recovery rate is important, therefore short recovery work training is essential
• Ideally players will have pace
• Can be the physically smaller subject to the team’s format.
• Mobile and agile – therefore need to do relevant agility and power work
• Two-footed players in this position will be a massive advantage to be able to go
inside and outside of defenders, for example
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Central midfielders
Centre forward – target man
• Usually big players with a presence
• Ideally with good agility and balance under pressure – therefore need relevant agility
and power training
• Dynamically strong players
• Vertical, single leg jumping power
• Explosive position, training should reflect that – work on the first step and
accleration
• Average VO2max, approx 59 ml/kg/body wt
• Must enjoy the contact side of the sport
• If timings of jumps are a conditioning issue, than this is important and should be
specifically worked on
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Centre forward – channel man
• Fit players, with above average VO2max
• Good pace, some of the quickest players in the team
• Speed endurance training is essential
• Agile, in the respect of turning quickly – this skill should be practised
• Balance
• Explosive position, therefore training should reflect that, for example for linear and
curvilinear acceleration
• Strength required, for example to hold off defenders
Football fitness- conditioning techniques to ensure you stay in
shape the whole season
By: Simon Thadani
Football is one of the most unique and demanding sports. At the top level, players
are expected to play 50 or more matches in a season that lasts nine months, and
the physical toll is increased by all the training between matches, as well as the
travelling up and down the country and abroad. Players are mentally and physically
fully taxed. Football is rightly described as ‘a marathon, not a sprint’.
Once pre-season has been completed and professional teams are into league and cup
games, conditioning does not take priority for the regular starting 11 players. Rather,
games, football training (ie, with the ball) and recovery/rest days become the
priority. Conditioning comes next, but I am always looking to continue a player’s
individual personal development – to keep them as match-sharp as possible.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Football training: how to maintain fitness all
year round
Training and playing is conditioning. This means that football training and games
maintain aerobic and anaerobic fitness, for example. And if you plan with the football
coaches, you can cover other conditioning aspects, such as strength, speed and power,
within specific football sessions. It really depends on where you are in the playing
cycle, what your conditioning priorities are and how you want to achieve them.
The great Muhammad Ali neatly neatly summed up the importance of getting training
right when he said: ‘The fight is won and lost far away from witnesses, it’s won behind
the lines, in the gym and out there on the roads, long before I dance under those
lights.’
So how do you – as a football conditioning coach – ensure that your players are able to
perform at maximum in their ‘fight arena’?
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Amateur players
Personal
Responsibility
In
Developing
Excellence
Guidelines for progressing footballers’ conditioning
across the season
Early in-season
Match analysis systems quite clearly indicate that players continue to improve their
match fitness several games into the season. At this time, subject to fixtures, you are
looking to overload the players three times a week. Note that this also includes
matches and can be done either by football training or specific conditioning. Individual
strength programmes are continuing during this period. It is also important to continue
to develop speed and power.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
A great deal depends on how high you are up the non-league ladder and why you play
football. The higher you are, the more seriously you should take your conditioning. If
you train (with the team) twice a week then you should certainly fit in conditioning
work within these sessions. However, you should also do more conditioning within your
own time. As a conditioning coach, you need to give players guidelines and
programmes to follow and do, and trust (but monitor) that they get on with them.
Consequently you must encourage players to keep you informed of what they have
done so you can start to build up a picture of their condition. Following the PRIDE
acronym will help – this is used in professional football, but it is just as important in
the amateur game. It stands for:
Examples of drills we might use:
1) High-intensity aerobic/anaerobic without ball
This drill will be used if we are playing Saturday-to-Saturday fixtures and football
training is not of a high intensity. Mark out a 300m oval track and place cones in a
straight line at intervals of 4m, 8m, 12m, 16m and 20m within it (depending on the
number of players you are working with, more than one lane can be marked out).
a) Players run around the 300m track in 50 seconds – this time is based on
professional players. They rest for one minute and go again. Three further runs
are completed.
b) They then do a simple ‘doggy drill’ (normal running action, there and back,
there and back, etc) to the 4m cone and back, then to the 8m cone and back.
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This pattern is repeated to the remaining 12m, 16m and 20m cones. The drill is
completed at 100% effort. Professional players will complete the course in less
than 27 seconds. The players rest for one and a half minutes and then go again.
This constitutes one set – each contains two efforts. Aim for two to four sets.
This is a very tough session.
2) High-intensity aerobic/anaerobic workout with ball
Around Christmas time
In the professional game, Christmas and the New Year is a very hectic period, so the
four ‘Rs’ take priority – Rest, Recovery, Rehydration and Refuelling. However, lower
down the amateur leagues this time could be ideal to have a mini-break and then do
some serious training, such as speed-endurance or strength and power work.
Examples of drills we might use:
1) Speed endurance without ball
Jog 5 metres and then sprint 30 metres
Jog 5 metres and then sprint 35 metres
Jog 5 metres and then sprint 40 metres
Jog 5 metres and then sprint 45 metres
Recovery – walk for 2 minutes between sets
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
This drill uses a pitch, approximately 42m by 35m, with two goals and two goalkeepers
and two teams of five outfield players. You’ll also need about 20 balls – these are
spread out around the outside of the pitch. Players basically play a high intensity fivea-side for four minutes and then take an active rest (this can involve walking and light
jogging) of 90 seconds. The emphasis is on continuous play (hence the spare balls).
Repeat four to six times.
Do: 4-6 sets
2) Speed endurance with ball
Cones- f d b o a c e
Players - *1 *2
Use six cones - a b c d e f and o (as shown in diagram). The players start at cone ‘o’.
The players are marked as *1 and *2. Distance between each cone is 5 yards.
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Each player has a ball and they face in opposite directions. At the command ‘go’,
player 1 sprint-dribbles to cone ‘b’ and leaves the ball there. He then turns and sprints
to collect his partner’s ball at ‘a’. At the same time, player 2 has sprint-dribbled to
‘a’, left the ball there, turned and sprinted to ‘b’, where he collects the ball left by
player 1.
On arriving at their respective cones (b and a), the players each collect their partner’s
ball (as noted), turn and sprint with the ball to cones ‘d’ and ‘c.’ respectively. They
leave the balls at these cones, then turn and sprint to collect their partner’s ball, then
turn and sprint-dribble with the ball to cones ‘f’ and ‘e’ respectively, where they
leave the balls, turn and sprint to pick up their partner’s ball, and turn and sprint back
with the ball to ‘o.’ Professional players take less than 20 seconds to complete this
drill.
Maintenance period
The maintenance period usually starts around February time. Prozone (this is a very
precise method of measuring player movements and intensity on pitch) has clearly
shown me that it’s rare that professional players beat their on-field performance bests
– for example, for a wide midfield player, 13km (distance covered) 2000 metres (high
intensity) and 600metres (sprint work) in a match. They are as fit, strong and quick as
you will get them at this time of the season and they will have played some 30-plus
games. If you can get them to continually match their personal bests, week in, week
out, then you have done well. The next three to four months of the season will be a
real challenge – players’ physical condition must be maintained, without dips in
performance.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Do: 10-12 times with 40 seconds’ active recovery.
Examples of drills we might use:
Football maintains many of the components of conditioning. But, subject to what the
players do in football training, you may need to top up certain aspects, such as speed
or endurance. This is the time of year when I like to move outside and continue to
develop the strength that has been developed inside in the gym and sports hall, via
the use of fresh new drills and workouts.
Over-speed drill – slingshot, using bungees, for speed
This drill improves stride rate, stride frequency, arm swing acceleration and reflexes.
Two players work together, one resisting and holding the bungee tension and the other
working. You need one harness and two bungees, which are attached together.
Players stand 25m apart. Player 1 wears the harness and player 2 provides the
resistance.
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On the shout ‘go’, player 2 sprints 5m and stops. At the same time, player 1(sprinting
approx 30m) sprints past player 2 and stops slowly.
The drill is repeated three or four times, after which the players sprint without
resistance.
End-of-season
Examples of training we might use instead of football training:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Simple pool sessions – moderate intensity level
Spinning bike sessions – moderate intensity level
Volleyball competition – light intensity level
Football head tennis competition – light intensity level
Cycling around a park or lake – light/moderate level.
Golden tips for conditioning during the season
 Prioritise conditioning; you can’t do everything you know that players need.
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SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
This is a highly dangerous period, physically and mentally – one when players can and
do get injured. Forty-five games might have been played, but those last five or more
could be the most important, sorting out relegation or promotion. Attitude,
motivation, over-training, under-training and fatigue become big issues; so it is
important to keep training fresh to keep the players fresh. I give them variety by
introducing cross-training and striving to keep them mentally positive. ‘Short and
sharp’ is very much my training mantra at this time. Stretching is also emphasised.
The starting 11 will have a different schedule from the rest of the squad. With
the latter you must ensure that their fitness levels are high enough so that, if
they are called upon, they can slot into the first team without their fitness
being an issue.
Amateur players, subject to what level they play at and why they play, should
take responsibility for doing extra conditioning work in their own time.
If your players are playing two games a week, eg, Saturdays and Tuesdays, then
conditioning takes a back seat and the four ‘Rs’ take priority. Do not
underestimate the benefit of sleep and of not disturbing the sleep patterns as
part of recovery.
Nutrition is very important – get specialised help. Food and fluid intake does
affect performances. It is interesting to note that younger professional players
do not seem to adhere to this, while older players seem to take it on board.
Have the latter learned from their mistakes?
When working on a weekly cycle (Saturday to Saturday matches) follow the
tapering principles, ie, do conditioning drills in the early part of the week and
technical, higher-quality work closer to matches.
Prioritise the conditioning components to the individual and the team.
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cardiovascular fitness, subject to the time of the season, is to train three
times a week, ideally achieving approximately 16 to 20 minutes in the upper
training zone (85% to 95% of heart rate maximum). Note: there will always be
exceptions to this rule.
Try to have a ‘theme’ for every warm-up, which works on a conditioning
component as well as warms the player up. Themes could be speed with relay
races, or acceleration, or technique work, power with plyometrics or
resistance sprint work, such as hill work or mobility with dynamic stretching,
or strength work with press ups, core work and lunges, etc.
A little and often specific conditioning work is better than none, so plan ahead.
Do the simple things well. Keep the sessions simple and specific, especially if
time is an issue and overtraining is to be avoided.
Mix it up – keep conditioning fresh. There will by necessity be certain
conditioning aspects you must continually repeat, but when the opportunity
arises, employ variety. Examples include using different coaches to do
sessions, sprint relays with a baton or a rugby or a tennis ball, or in different
locations, and so on.
Do drills accurately and with specificity in mind. For example, in a match,
players walk, jog, run and sprint, so your aerobic and anaerobic workouts
without a ball should reflect this. As a specific example, sprints in a game last
between two and five seconds, therefore drills should reflect this
Plan ahead as much as possible. Speak to the football coaches and work with
them and find slots where football training intensity is low or moderate and
then plan your conditioning. Failing to plan is planning to fail.
Educate the players why they are doing specific drills and suchlike. Get them
to ‘buy into’ what they are doing by telling them that they will become better
players.
Heart-rate monitors are a good way to monitor players’ training – although they
are not infallible, they will allow a good degree of control.
Player mentality is important. Players will always ‘moan’ when they have to do
a hard specific conditioning drill – it’s their nature! Their attitude on the day
will always have an effect on the drill, so be positive and reinforce that it will
make them better players.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
 Although every player is genetically different, our basic rule for improving
Simon’s star tip
Hard work
There is no substitute for hard physical work, at the right time and place. All the
sports science, nutritional information and gadgets will never replace the passion,
desire and the will to win that hard physical work can give you.
Football training: the importance of testing
for players and coaches
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Testing is an objective way of confirming a coach or manager's
thoughts
By: Simon Thadani
Basically, the extent of testing and monitoring usually reflects the manager’s and
coaches’ philosophy on how players should train and play and how their condition
should be measured. Conditioning coaches will also try to educate them on the
importance of having some measurable standards in place to back up/confirm what
the manager and coaches see in training and games.
My opinion is simple: testing is important but it should be kept simple and, just as
crucially, should be specific to the game. Testing is not only evaluative, but also about
educating the players about the importance and the benefits of being tested (i.e. so
that they can strive for higher levels of condition). Testing is also an objective way of
confirming the manager’s/coaches’ thoughts.
What tests should you do?
Several years ago I went to a course run by the Football Association. There were
around 20 conditioning coaches on the course, from the Premiership and the
Championship. The tutors asked us to compile a list of the tests we do at our clubs both past and present. Most of us were expecting maybe a total of 12 to 15 tests.
When the combined list came back, there were 30-plus tests, several of which I and
many others had never heard of! The point I am trying to get over is that there are so
many different opinions in the game regarding testing.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
I have had the privilege to work with several top managers and coaches. I have also
talked to many other conditioning coaches, managers, coaches and visited several
other clubs over the years, and many of them have different opinions on testing
players. Some were not convinced about the benefits, whereas others would be, and
would have a whole battery of tests. And then again, there would be clubs that
perhaps used only one or two tests.
Football is a multi-directional and multi-paced explosive game, primarily anaerobic,
but with an aerobic foundation. We should therefore test those components, more
specifically as aerobic endurance; speed; and speed, agility, power and recovery rate.
Testing amateur players
When testing amateur teams, ask yourself two very important questions: how much
time does the team have to train, and why does the team play? If your team plays
Saturday to Saturday (or Sunday to Sunday) and does not train between games, then it
will be very difficult to test players, therefore testing might not be feasible. This is
because you will not specifically be working on developing improved football
condition. If your team plays for the fun of playing and the social side of football, then
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I think testing is not relevant, it’s important that players to continue to enjoy and love
the game. However, if your players are more serious and regular training does take
place, or they are at a higher level, then testing becomes more relevant and
appropriate.
Difference between professional and amateur players
Subject to your standard of play, you are looking at (subject to the tests used) a
difference of 10% to 25% between amateurs and professionals. However, you should be
less concerned with this variance and more with past testing history. This will give you
a better indication of fitness levels and the effects of the playing and conditioning
programme.
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To assess fitness levels
To set programmes and schedules
To study the effect of training programmes and matches
To turn weakness into strength (team and individual)
To motivate players and give them objective feedback
To educate players
To assess rehabilitation work and post-injury condition
To create future standards and a player condition database
To monitor over-training
To advise the manager of any issues
To make players better
To give players the confidence to perform well
And finally - and often highly underrated – for the mental benefits of telling a
player they look and are fit.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Testing is important for the following reasons:
A very practical look at monitoring and testing, based on my
opinion and experience
Generally speaking, what follows are examples of what professional clubs (subject to
financial status) would monitor in training from Mondays to Fridays. They may use one
or more of the following:
Heart rate monitors
If you are looking to improve a player’s aerobic fitness, research indicates that you
need to work players three times a week for 16-20 minutes in the top heart rate zone,
ie, 90% to 95% of heart rate max. Heart rate monitors are widely used in the
professional game.
Resting heart rates and questionnaires
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Measuring players’ resting heart rates (RHR*) and using a questionnaire (‘Perceived
training loads’), designed to measure the way the player is feeling about their physical
condition, can evaluate training status and inform the coach as to whether they need
a rest or some lighter work or are OK to carry on at the current intensity. Some clubs
use this system, but in my experience it is more widely used abroad. You need to trust
your players because they can manipulate the questionnaire answers!
* RHR is taken a few moments after waking. A variation from the ‘norm’ can indicate
that the players are in an over-trained state.
Omega wave system
Player tests
Laboratory tests
The only two lab tests I would use would be the VO2* and possibly the Wingate test*. I
would consider other tests if there were specific individual player issues, for example
a need to determine hamstring strength, due to a player’s propensity to sustain
strains. The average professional player’s VO2 max is approx 60ml/kg/min (this
indicates a high aerobic capacity on a par with a male elite 400m runner, but allows
for a significant anaerobic contribution to their ‘energy system power’ - Ed). In terms
of anaerobic power and the Wingate test, you are looking at player’s power levels not
declining by more than 15-20% between the first and tenth effort.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Again, only a couple of clubs have this system, due to its cost. It measures the time
between heartbeats over several minutes - which in theory, using past history, would
give you some feedback on training status.
* The VO2 test measures a player’s maximum aerobic capacity; the Wingate test
measures anaerobic power endurance and ‘fade’.
Field tests
These form the bulk of your tests. Keep them simple and specific. ‘multi-stage bleep’
or ‘Yo Yo’ tests can fall into this category. They are popular all around the world in
many different sports. Top international manager Guus Hiddink wants his players to
achieve level 14 on the bleep test. The average in the professional game is between
13.8 and 14.2. The 12-minute run is also a test I use – although there are numerous
versions (different durations). At Ipswich, players achieve distances of 3.35km/2.06
miles outdoors and 3.41km/2.1 miles on treadmills.
Game analysis
ProZone or Amisco analysis system (see monitoring section above).
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Recovery test
There are numerous examples in use that have been designed on an individual basis by
different clubs. Ours is simple and easy to do.
Power - vertical jump test
Players’ leg power can be measured using a force plate or the much more low-tech
sergeant jump. Players use a countermovement jump – they bend and then extend
their legs to jump. This utilises the stretch/reflex capacity of muscles.
Max jump height is recorded in cm. Professional players average approx 57cm.
Speed - linear
There are many ways to test for speed. To be 100% accurate, speed gates with infrared beams that time the start and finish and any intermediate points should be used.
Players perform a flat-out sprint over 20m, with splits at 5m and 10m to assess
acceleration. Static and rolling starts are used.
Speed - multi-directional
For example, the ‘T agility sprint test’ – where the player has to move forward,
laterally and turn.
Speed - endurance
There are numerous variations to this test. We might do 8 to 10 sprints over 30m or
40m, with a short recovery of 20/30 seconds. We are looking for professional players
to not fatigue more than 15% to 20% from effort 1 to effort 10.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
8 x 45 second multi-paced efforts on a pre-set circuit. The players’ heart rates are
monitored. The (active) recovery between the circuits is used to monitor their training
status. Thus, if a player’s heart rate is dropping and stabilising more quickly than it
did during previous tests during the active recovery, then their fitness has improved
(active recovery involves gentle CV exercise, eg walking/slow jogging). We look for
players to not fatigue by more than 8% in terms of heart rate recovery values, across
the circuit.
Strength/local muscular endurance tests
Again there are many possibilities. These include using machines (isokinetic – that
measure a muscle’s constant force expression over a designated path) or everyday free
weights or body weight exercises.
Selected scores from professionals:
Number of press-ups - 65
Number of clap (plyo) press-ups - 19
Squat – 1.5 times body weight.
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A word of caution: any testing is only accurate if the players’ attitude and effort
toward them are 100%.
The final whistle on testing
Choose the right time to test. Avoid testing players when they are tired, or during a
hectic schedule of games.
Try to produce the same environment for each test as previously done, eg, after a
couple of days off, or always outside on a dry day (professional players are usually
tested two to four times a year).
Over the years I would say that the manager and coaches’ observations with reference
to conditioning issues in games and training are right 75% of the time. The surprise and
food for thought comes with the other 25% of the time! This is when test results could
just make the manager and coaches think a bit! And, perhaps, rest or change playing
and conditioning in regard to a specific player/players.
Having the fittest team in the league will not win you the league. As an exinternational and world cup player once told me (as have many other top coaches),
conditioning is a very important aspect of today’s game BUT more importantly, it’s the
players’ ATTITUDE, DESIRE. SKILL and ABILITY that matters first and then, and only
then, the coaching and conditioning they receive.
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I believe that any test with a ball is testing skill. This makes it very much a coaching
issue – therefore, in my opinion, you should avoid testing with a ball.
About Simon Thadani
After serving in HM Armed Forces, Simon became a professional football conditioning
coach some 20 years ago, with the last 9 years spent at Ipswich Town Football club.
Simon has overseen the conditioning of the squad during Ipswich’s promotion and
successful Premiership and European campaigns and thereafter the tough and
demanding Championship campaigns.
Football matches: half time psychology
Effective communication between the coach and players is
essential at half time
The half-time period in a match is the only direct opportunity the coach has to speak
to all the players once the match has started, and to influence the second half
performance and result. Effective communication between the coach and players is
therefore essential, as Jim Petruzzi explains…
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Maximising second half performance is the goal of any coach and this will entail
discussions about tactics, state of the pitch, player formations etc. However, just as
important as what is said is how effectively it is communicated. Communication is a 2way process and while most coaches are good at talking to players and giving out
instructions, some are less accomplished at listening! This is unfortunate as coaches
can often get a good feel for what’s going on by asking players questions and
instigating a 2-way discussion.
How a coach communicates with the players is partly reflected in his or her leadership
style; ideally this style should be adapted to the circumstances of the dressing room.
For example, a hostile attitude among the players may require a more autocratic
style, whereas a friendly and co-operative attitude may favour a more democratic
style. The characteristics of these two styles are summarised below:
Autocratic Style (eg ex-Portugal & Chelsea manager Phil
Scolari)
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What a coach says to the players during half-time will depend on both the score, and
the perspective of the match. If a team is winning 2-0 at half-time, it will almost
certainly go into the changing rooms with a more positive attitude than the
opposition. However, suppose the opposition score just before the break; although still
losing at half-time, they may well feel very positive, believing that they now have the
momentum. The type of game also affects psychological perspectives; knockout games
are different to league games and top of the league teams tend to have different
expectations to those at the bottom! Whatever the perspective however, the half-time
period is crucial because players will have their first opportunity to reflect consciously
on the game for an extended period, and the role of the coach is critical.
• The coach decides what needs to be done;
• The players do not participate in the decision-making process;
• The coach clearly defines how what needs to be done should be done.
Democratic Style – (eg ex-England manager Sven Goran
Errikson)
• The coach sets out what the players need to achieve;
• He then invites the players to out forward ideas or make suggestions on how to go
about it;
• The coach decides the best course of action based on the suggestions the players
have made.
Half-time psychology and substitutions
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Using NLP at half-time
NLP is about a series of psychological techniques, which can help us gain control over
parts of the brain that we normally think of as ‘automatically’ regulating the way we
think, behave and perform. And when applied to sport, NLP can help athletes to
maximise performance. One of these techniques is positive instruction; instead of a
coach telling a player not to miss the target when shooting and create negative
thoughts in his or her mind, it’s far more positive to tell the player to hit the target. In
relation to half-time, there are 3 very useful techniques that can favourably affect the
state of mind of players and coach and maximise second half performance:
• Dissociation – this technique recreates a past experience but from the perspective
of somebody who was not emotionally involved (eg an onlooker). For example, if the
team has conceded a scrappy goal, the coach would try and recreate that experience
in the mind, but imagine that he or she is a passive onlooker watching the event. This
enables a coach to analyse the situation coolly and logically without emotion, and thus
come up with a solution that can be discussed calmly and rationally at half-time;
• Reframing – this is about changing the frame of reference in order to interpret a
situation in a more positive light. A good example of this was in football’s 2005
European Champions League final. Liverpool were 3-0 down to AC Milan at half-time;
during the team-talk, Rafa Benitiz, the Liverpool manager suggested that his players
‘go out and score the first goal and see what happens from there’. This was a far more
positive frame of reference than asking them to go out and score 3 goals in order to
draw level;
• Anchoring – is a useful practical technique to help create a desired state of mind by
applying a simple physical stimulus. This involves recalling a powerful memory where
you experienced the desired state of mind and then simultaneously creating an
‘anchoring stimulus’ – eg pressing together your thumb and index finger. With enough
repetition and practice, merely pressing together your thumb and index finger can be
sufficient to reproduce the desired state of mind, whether it be confidence, relaxation
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Whether and who the manager decides to substitute at half-time can make an
enormous impact on the second half psychology. If a team is ahead at half-time,
substituting an attacking player for a defender may suggest that the manager lacks
confidence in holding the lead and has decided to ‘batten down the hatches’!
Substituting the team captain can have a devastating impact on a team, suggesting
perhaps that the manager in panicking. Putting on a player who’s performed
particularly well against the opposition in previous encounters may on the other hand
unsettle the opponents! Deciding the best course of action is often a balancing act; if
a team is playing well but losing at half-time, should the manager keep the faith and
trust that things will come good, or should he or she make a bold attacking
substitution, but risk disrupting the flow and cohesion of the first half? In order to
make these kind of decisions, it’s important that the manager and players are in the
right frame of mind and this is where psychological techniques borrowed from neurolinguistic programming (NLP) can come in handy.
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etc.
Applying a combination of these techniques at half-time can significantly enhance the
performance of both players and coaches, and increase the second half performance
of the team.
Original article by Jim Petruzzi
Summary by Andrew Hamilton BSc Hons MRSC ACSM
Plyometric training: can it improve football
performance?
Plyometric type training exercises for power and speed are used with great effect
in a number of sports. But how useful are they for footballers? John Shepherd
looks at the latest research and comes up with some surprising conclusions…
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Plyometric type exercises for power and speed are used with
great effect but how useful are they for footballers?
Football is a high-intensity intermittent sport. Although players can cover up to 11km
in a game, most of this is done in short, sharp bursts lasting seconds, and this
performance therefore relies on anaerobic energy, speed and power. Plyometric
(jumping) exercises to develop power are used by sportsmen and sportswomen from
myriad sports with success. But can they be applied to football and combined with
traditional approaches?
A plyometric exercise involves the combination of two muscle contractions coming
together to enhance muscular power outputs and therefore speed and power (see box
1). Footballers need to posses agility, speed and strength (see box 2) and plyometrics
are a great way to condition these outcomes. Firstly, let’s take a look at some
research that has examined the inclusion of these types of exercises into football
training.
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Swiss researchers examined the effect of surface type (grass or sand) on residual
muscle soreness, vertical jump and sprint performance in 37 footballers (2). Why
residual muscle soreness? Well, if a player suffers from soreness or gets injured and
has to be rehabbed back to full fitness, the knowledge of the best surfaces on which to
train will be of great benefit to football conditioners, physiotherapists and managers.
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In the world of sports conditioning, specificity is seen as key in terms of conditioning
drills and practice, and maybe, therefore, jumping from sand could be seen as less
relevant than jumping from grass. However, it’s not always that simple. To perform a
squat jump requires the generation of force from a stationary position, primarily using
a concentric muscle contraction in the ankles, thighs and hip muscles. But the counter
movement jump utilises the eccentric/concentric stretch shortening cycle interaction
and jumping from the softer surface will slow this down. Basically the sand will ‘damp’
the explosive capability of the muscles, which explains the reduced adaptation to this
training method of the players in that group.
However jumping from sand requires greater strength and this probably explains why
the players who performed their plyometrics from this surface improved this jump
more significantly. It was as if they were performing their jumps with added
resistance, which overloaded their muscles to a greater extent than the grass,
producing a resultant increase in strength.
What are the lessons here for football conditioners? Varying the surface from which
players perform their plyometrics training could yield physiological and performance
benefits, and reduce residual muscular soreness, allowing a player to complete more
high-intensity training. However, everything else being equal, it’s probably still better
that players train on hard dry grass, running tracks or sprung sports hall floors when
performing plyometrics. This is because the harder surfaces will help develop a ‘quick
fire stretch shortening cycle’, which will translate into improved on-pitch
performance.
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Eighteen players followed a four-week plyometric training programme on grass, while
19 followed the same programme on sand. Pre and post-intervention programme, the
players were tested on 10m and 20m sprint performance, squat jump and counter
movement jump ability. Muscle soreness was tested using a questionnaire. The results
showed that both interventions improved sprint speed and squat jump performance
similarly. However, it was discovered that the footballers performing plyometrics on
sand improved their counter movement jump more than those who jumped from the
grass. It was additionally discovered that the players who performed their jumps from
sand reported less muscle soreness.
Weight training
For comprehensive football conditioning, weight training and plyometrics can be
combined. But what kind of weight training protocol works best for footballers?
Researchers from Norway examined weight training protocols used by professional
football teams (3). Specifically they wanted to find out whether there was a strong
relationship between maximal strength, sprint and vertical jump performance among
elite players.
Seventeen international players, with an average age of 25, participated in the survey.
They were tested for maximum half-squat, vertical jump and sprint performance over
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30m and using a 10m-shuttle run. It was discovered that half squat performance was a
key determinant of all test performances and it was also noted that this did not
compromise anaerobic endurance as measured by the shuttle run. The researchers
concluded that ‘elite soccer players should focus on maximal strength training, with
emphasis on maximal mobilisation of concentric movements’ (see box 3).
Power combination training
Power combination training combines plyometric and weight training exercises into
the same workout. The exercises are usually paired and must work the same muscle
groups. Typical examples include the squat jump and half squat, and the split jump
and the single leg press. Loadings on the weights exercises must be in excess of 70% of
one repetition maximum (1RM). This is to ensure that the exercise targets large
numbers of fast twitch fibres (a lighter weight would tend to emphasise slow twitch
fibres – which have an endurance role and are consequentially much less likely to
contribute to power, speed and strength development).
Power combination workouts have been shown to enhance the power outputs of fast
twitch muscle fibres within the workout and over a training period. This is believed to
occur as a result of ‘potentiation’, which is essentially heightened neuromuscular
activity in the relevant muscles. The net effect is that an athlete is able to recruit
larger numbers of fast twitch muscle fibres without conscious effort, thus boosting
their power output.
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However, there is some research which argues that this method of training may be less
beneficial for football players. Norwegian researchers looked at power combination
training methods and their effects on professional players (5). Six players were
assigned to a heavy weight training group, who also completed 6-8 specific football
sessions a week, whilst 8 players performed plyometrics as well as the heavy strength
work and the football sessions. A control group just performed the 6-8 weekly soccer
sessions.
The result showed that there were no significant differences between the footballers
who had performed the power combination training or the heavy squats only. As a
result of these findings, the researchers decided to create just one intervention group
with players performing heavy weights and plyometrics. Again, a control group just
performed a comparable number of weekly football sessions. The power combination
training footballers showed improvements across all tests, except the counter
movement jump. These improvements were deemed to be significant for the half
squat 1RM and sergeant jump for example. However, non-significant differences were
seen on the half squat power tests with 20kg and 35kg loads and all of the sprint tests.
This led the researchers to conclude that, ‘there are no significant performanceenhancing effects of combining strength and plyometric training in professional soccer
players concurrently performing 6-8 soccer sessions a week compared to strength
training alone. However, heavy strength training leads to significant gains in strength
and power-related measurements in professional soccer players’.
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The pre- and post-intervention tests used by the researchers included maximum half
squat, counter-movement jumps and peak power in half squat with 20kg, 35kg, and
50kg loads (basically the players’ speeds of movement were measured during the half
squat with these weights and their power outputs measured). In terms of sprint speed,
acceleration, flat out speed and 40m times were tested.
How can these findings be reconciled with the fact that much other research indicates
that power combination training works? Simon Thadani is the conditioning coach at
Ipswich Town FC, and believes that football conditioners must be conscious of the
training that players are doing with the football coaches and that this must all be
assessed and added to the overall training load on the players.
He provides the following real life scenario: ‘One of the football coaches took away
several of the defenders for half an hour to concentrate on heading. I watched the
session and observed that each player ended up doing 150 plus headers. I therefore
decided that the players had done enough and did not need to do the afternoon
session, nor plyometrics the
next day.’
Basically, what Simon is noting is that the football sessions were conditioning the jump
performance of the players without them having to do a specific jumping workout.
This might explain the findings of the Norwegian researchers above; a crucial
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consideration for football conditioners (indeed conditioners of all high intensity
intermittent sports) is that the physiological demands of the sport itself (both through
training and competition) cannot be overlooked as a contributor to the overall training
and conditioning load.
Developing the maximum power capabilities of footballers is crucial for maximum
playing performance. Although plyometric exercises tick all the right boxes in this
respect, it would appear that heavy weight exercises, notably the half squat, are
perhaps even more effective as part of a properly constructed training programme.
Plyometric exercises, as specific training units, may be more beneficial in pre-season
and from an injury prevention perspective (in terms of mastering improved technique
and strengthening relevant muscles) in a controlled environment. And, finally, when
plyometrics are used, conditioning coaches should also be mindful of the surface on
which they are performed, in terms of training response and potential muscle
soreness.
John Shepherd MA is a specialist health, sport and fitness writer and a former
international long jumper
References
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2007) 6, 63-70
Br J Sports Med. 2008 Jan;42(1):42-6. Epub 2007 May 25
Br J Sports Med. 2004 Jun;38(3):285-8.
Periodization Training for Sports, 2nd edition: Bompa Et al, Human Kinetics, 2005
J Strength Cond Res. 2008 May;22(3):773-80.
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Conclusion
Football Training: combining agility training
and fitness workouts to improve performance
Football conditioning to maintain and improve performance
Pre match warm-up drills and exercises are a commonplace sight in football but
are these drills making the footballers better at what they do, or are coaches
merely replicating past practice or advocating what they did as a player years ago?
More generally, do the technical training and exercise routines reduce the risk of
injury and enhance the players’ performance on the field, and can they be made
better? James Marshall investigates
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Research on professional women football players in the USA compared their
performance in matches to that of good players (but not professional or internationals)
in the Danish and Swedish leagues and found that the work rate was much higher in
the professional players, who covered 33% more distance in their hardest five minutes
of a match than the ‘good’ players (1).
However, it was interesting to see that following this burst, the next five minutes
resulted in a 17% below average work rate, showing that it is impossible to maintain
the absolute top work rates. The professionals also ran at top speeds for 28% longer
over the match than the ‘good’ players, covering 1.68km compared to 1.33km. The
overall distance covered was between 9-11km with over 1,300 changes in activity in
the match – an average of one change every 4 seconds!
There was also a difference in activity levels between the positions for both groups,
with defenders performing fewer sprints than midfielders and attackers and also fewer
intervals of high intensity running overall. Fatigue had an effect on both groups, with
the professionals running 25-27% less at high intensity in the last 15 minutes of the
game compared to the previous five 15-minute intervals. The ‘good’ players
performed less work in the last 15 minutes of both halves compared to the previous 30
minutes, highlighting the difference between activity levels of merely good amateur
players and professionals.
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Football players have to perform repeated sprints throughout the match. Fitter players
will be able to perform these sprints for longer. A less fit player may be faster, but
won’t be able to produce that speed when it counts – for example during the last 10
minutes of each half or in injury time.
Small-sided games
Small-sided games are often used in training as an efficient way of working on fitness
and simultaneously. These consist of games of two versus two, three versus three and
so on in a half or quarter-sized pitch that requires all players to work almost
continuously throughout the duration of the session. The coach can adjust the game to
make it more accurately replicate the demands of matches themselves. But, do they
actually allow for maximal bursts of activity in a limited space?
A study compared the training activity profiles of elite women football players and
also their domestic and international matches (2). While the work-to-rest ratios were
very similar, the composition of the activities was different. Matches usually had a
period of up to four seconds of high intensity activity (defined as sprinting, striding or
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high intensity running) followed by 44-64 seconds of low intensity activity (defined as
standing, walking or jogging). This equated to work:rest ratios of 1:13 for attackers,
1:10 for midfielders, and 1:15 for defenders.
In international matches, however, there were more episodes of repeated sprints than
in domestic competition and training. The average player had performed 4.8 repeated
sprints in international games, with each sprint averaging 2.1 seconds and with 5.8
seconds of active recovery between the sprints. This type of repeated sprint activity
wasn’t found in the small-sided games in training, so clearly they were not helping to
prepare the players as well for international matches as for domestic matches.
Having assessed the levels of activity required in football, how do we know if players
are fit enough to play at the highest level? Any test has to be able to measure a fitness
parameter that is used in football, and also to distinguish between good and very good
players. These fitness tests may be useful to see if the player is fit enough but lacks
skill, or is skilful in training but lacks the ability to produce that consistently
throughout the game.
Some researchers are now trying to integrate skill work into the fitness tests to try and
separate the different levels of ability more accurately. The advantage of this is that
it becomes more specific to football; the disadvantage is that when you are testing
more than one variable at once, it is harder to discern which is the weakest point that
needs to be trained – skill or fitness.
One group of Serbian researchers used a zigzag run test without a ball and then one
when dribbling a ball (3). The course was series of four 5-metre sections set out at
100-degree angles (see figure 1 below). The smaller the gap between the two times
indicated a higher level of skill and was known as the ‘skill index’. This allows the
testers to identify the quick players with the ball, and then see whether less quick
players need to work on speed, or skill level.
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Testing
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Training speed or agility
It’s quite common to see football coaches do generic speed or agility work using
various pieces of equipment on the ground as aids to their training. However, whether
this works or not is debatable; it looks good, it’s easy to do, but is it transferable to
the sport of football itself?
The problem is that most agility tests identify how quick a player moves around
obstacles or between two or three different cones. They don’t identify how a player
reacts to a stimulus that actually occurs in the game. A good tennis player therefore
may do well on a football agility test, but that doesn’t mean he can play football!
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To illustrate this, researchers looked at speed and agility for six random intermittent
dynamic type sports: football, field hockey, rugby, basketball, tennis and netball (4).
They tested players before and after three training protocols using the T-Test, a 15metre sprint, a countermovement jump and a dynamic balance test.
The training protocols used were based on either programmed agility movements,
random agility movements in the form of small-sided games or a control group with no
conditioning. The programmed group was further split into two subgroups, with one
subgroup using specialised equipment while the other didn’t (see box 1). The trials ran
over six weeks with training being split into two separate 60-minute sessions a week,
including a 15-minute warm up.
The subjects involved in this study were untrained, so the results may not be
transferable to trained athletes. Both training groups improved their performance over
the six weeks, with the programmed group improving more than the random group.
There was no difference within the programmed group between subjects who used
equipment and those who didn’t.
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As well as the subjects being untrained (where any type of training will normally lead
to an improvement) another limitation of this study was that the tests themselves
were programmed tests – ie the subjects knew exactly where to go and in what order,
so programmed conditioning may well be more suitable for doing better at these tests.
Moreover, the group who played the games were also improving their ball skills and
game awareness concurrently, and this was not measured.
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One study that did look at trained professional football players used either strength or
strength and plyometric training plan to improve sprint and jump performance over
seven weeks(5). One group of players performed the strength-only sessions, which
consisted of half squats performed at 4-6RM (the maximum amount of weight that
could be lifted safely either four, five or six times) for three to five sets. The other
group completed the same strength sessions but also performed various plyometric
exercises such as leg bounds and hurdle jumps.
Pre-season conditioning
Most studies done on football players conditioning are short in nature, normally six to
eight weeks, because there’s only limited time available to implement new tests and
protocols out of season. However, the longer-term effects of training plans and
protocols will differ as players continue to adapt. Similarly, if some maintenance work
is not done each week, the effects of a pre-season training programme may not last
beyond Christmas.
Footballers often talk about being ‘match fit’ but that maybe should read ‘match fat’
as evidence shows that just training and playing football may result in greater body fat
levels at the end of the season than at the beginning (6)! The same trend has also
been demonstrated in rugby league players who recorded increased fat and reduced
aerobic and muscular power at the end of the season compared to the beginning (7).
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Both groups improved their leg strength and their sprint and jump performances. The
rationale behind the study was that strength training has been shown to improve high
force, but not necessarily high velocity. The plyometrics were designed as part of a
power programme to help improve force production at speed, which translates into
linear sprint speed and vertical jump ability. The authors concluded that players who
were also doing football specific training sessions gained no further benefits by
performing additional plyometric work – possibly because the football training sessions
were already specific enough to aid in increasing the rate of force development.
A study carried out at Texas A&M University looked at a female varsity football team
and measures of VO2max, body mass and body fat % through a one-year cycle (8).
Despite their season only being 15 weeks long, the players’ average VO2max decreased
from just over 49mls/kg/min to 44.9mls/kg/min while body fat increased from 15.7%
to 18.8 %!
The difference in the training schedule from pre-season to in-season to off-season can
be seen in table 1. The main difference was the elimination of the high-intensity
speed sessions during the season and also the reduction of weightlifting volume by
35%, with no increase in load. The emphasis during the season was on maintaining the
cardiovascular workouts (presumably to maintain VO2max and keep body fat in check)
but these did not have the desired effect.
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Although there are no comparable studies in elite footballers, extrapolating these
results to a typical European season (which lasts over twice as long) suggests that inseason detraining may be even more of a problem. Indeed, this effect has been
observed in a longer season in junior reserve team players (10 to 14 year olds) who
gained fat and were slower at the end of the season than the start (8). Caution is
needed when looking at data in this age group as maturation levels play a big part in
changing physiology, but the decline in performance can be linked to lack of an inseason training plan.
Take home message
So how do you plan your training programme? Time is a factor and part-time clubs
obviously have less. I would recommend the warm-up as the ideal place to work on the
technical aspects of agility, rather than the standard jog around the pitch. Also, the
agility drills must replicate the movement patterns of football, and not just be
comprised of equipment obstacle courses that distract from the purpose of training.
Here are some tips:
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Maybe the coaches believed that matches and cardiovascular training sessions would
be enough to maintain fitness. However, as we saw in the study of small-sided games
(2), while matches and cardiovascular training can have many benefits, the necessary
high-intensity work to maintain peak performance may be missing. By dropping the
volume of weight lifting and eliminating the high-intensity speed workouts, the players
effectively became detrained as the season went on.
 A combination of programmed and unprogrammed agility sessions, leading into
small-sided games will give players a sound aerobic base and incorporate skill
work;
 These should be combined with higher intensity quality work for speed and also
anaerobic power;
 Weight training should be conducted in the off-season with squats being a key
lift, to develop lower body power and speed;
In-season work should also incorporate shorter sessions of weight training and sprints,
but with high levels of intensity.
Coaches and researchers often have a particular approach, which they firmly believe
in and will often go to great lengths to prove or justify these beliefs. However, it
seems that all aspects of training can work to some extent, but also have their flaws,
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and that detraining is a common factor during the season. It is therefore important to
vary the types of training to prevent staleness and also to maintain intensity and
quality work throughout the season. This will ensure that the players are as fit at the
end of the season as they were at the beginning.
Football training: improve your speed, power
and strength
What can you do to achieve optimum condition?
Conditioning for football has travelled light years in the last decade. Clubs are
determined to get as much out of their multi-million pound investments as they can.
Sports science therefore plays a big part and players are subject to rigorous
physiological assessment and testing, As a weekend warrior, you won’t have quite the
same back-up team to ensure your football fitness, but what can you do to achieve
optimum condition?
Warming up for football
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References
1. JSCR, 22 (2), 341-349 (2008)
2. JSCR, 22 (2) 543-552 (2008)
3. JSCR 22 (4), 1046-1050 (2008)
4. JSCR, 21 (4), 1093-1100 (2007)
5. JSCR 22 (3), 773-780 (2008)
6. JSCR, 21 (1), 48-51 (2007)
7. JSCR, 22(4), 1308-1314 (2008)
8. JSCR 19 (2), 400-408 (2005)
A recent survey indicated that hamstring strain rates were negatively linked to the
amount of static stretching that Premiership footballers performed. Basically, the
more ‘bend down and touch your toes and hold’ type of stretching exercises they did,
the more they were likely to strain their hamstrings in practice and matches.
This may come as a surprise, but it shouldn’t, when you consider the physical
requirements of football. Players have to make repeated dynamic movements, such as
sprints, jumps and turns. Research from Finland discovered that in the course of a
season, players could make 3,900 jumps and 7,000 turns. These movements all require
dynamic muscular contractions; contractions that have little relevance to those
involved in held stretches. Most top clubs now employ dynamic warm-ups, which place
a much greater emphasis on active and football relevant dynamic mobility.
Professor Angel Spassov is a conditioning expert, originally from Bulgaria, who is now
based in the USA. He is a football specialist and has worked with six World Cup squads.
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The professor has put together a specific football warm-up. You should use and adapt
it to your purposes, if you want to avoid crying off with injuries that could be avoided.
Spassov’s warm-up involves both passive and active (dynamic) elements. For the
passive part, he advises players to loosen their muscles 30-60 minutes before the
game/training session, by rubbing their ankles, knees, all the leg muscles, lower back,
neck and shoulders with a heating ointment, preferably one that is odourless and not
too hot on the skin.
The active warm-up is divided into two parts:
1. General.
Next, the legs (hamstrings, hip flexors, abductors, adductors, quads and calf muscles)
are targeted, with passive (held) and dynamic stretches (two to three standard
routines with 10-12 reps, with performance speed increased every set for the dynamic
stretches, such as leg swings).
Next, varying-intensity sprints are performed in different directions. At the end of this
general part of the warm-up, players’ pulse rates should have reached 160-170 beats
per minute.
2. Specific.
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This begins with six to eight minutes of jogging, followed by neck, shoulder, lower
back and abdominal stretches. There should be two to three different routines, with
10-12 repetitions of each.
This begins with various kicks of the ball with both legs, and various technical moves
with the ball, such as dribbling and stopping the ball. These should progress to
medium intensity and be performed with another player, then to high intensity, with
players combining into groups to practise all the technical skills at the highest possible
intensity and speed.
Spassov’s suggested warm-up makes great sense and should control players’
progression to match readiness. With the early parts of the warm-up performed
individually, players should be able to focus on their own movements and progress and
not be tempted to perform too-dynamic movements before their muscles are fully
prepared.
Football speed
All players require speed. Everything else being equal, the faster you are, the better
player you will be. However, football speed is different to the speed required of a
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sprinter.
1. Football speed is reactive and often unpredictable
2. The first step (linear or rotational) makes all the difference to getting past an
opponent or close enough to make a winning tackle.
3. A skill will often be have to performed from the basis of speed – tackles, headers,
passes, shots and so on.
4. Although elite players play on pitches that could support a game of bowls, many of
us will not be so lucky. Muddy, undulating surfaces will impair speed generation.
Your training must reflect the above considerations. Use the following practices to
improve your speed:
1. Turn and sprint drill
Players stand on the halfway line; at a command, they turn and sprint 10m. Repeat six
times, taking 30 seconds’ recovery time between efforts, while varying the turn
direction.
2. Run and dribble intervals
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5. A sprint may be needed when you’re ‘blowing hard’ (see Developing football
endurance, on the next page).
Run at three-quarter pace to a ball placed 20m away. Dribble it and swerve around a
cone, and pass after a further 15m. Jog back and repeat six times.
3. Speed dribble
‘Speed dribble’ over 30m (from standing: simply dribble as fast as you can, in a
straight line). Repeat six times, with one minute’s recovery time between each effort.
4. Floor/speed ladder drills
You may have seen players performing various drills through floor/speed ladders on TV
(you can also see these types of drills being performed on Peak Performance Premium
– search: speed, agility). These exercises are designed to improve, speed, agility and
reactive ability. They will positively affect your neuromuscular system if used over
time, so that you will be able to get your legs moving that bit quicker. There are
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hundreds of permutations that can be used with one or more ladders. Here are some
examples:
i) One foot in each rung (use a low knee lift and concentrate on foot speed, driving
your arms backwards and forwards).
ii) Step sideways through the ladder. Keep low and light on the ground.
iii) Run backwards through the ladder one rung at a time – use your calf muscles and
ankles to generate your speed and don’t forget to co-ordinate your arms with your
legs.
Developing power for football
Footballers are athletes in every sense of the word. All will resistance train. Their
training plans will involve body weight, weights and plyometric (jumping) exercises.
Weight training will provide foundation strength for more specific football condition,
such as speed, to be built on.
Key weight-training exercises for football include:
Squats, lunges, leg extensions and leg curls – with the latter, concentrate on the
lowering (eccentric) phase of the movement to reduce potential hamstring strain. Lift
a medium to heavy weight (70-80% of 1RM) using 6-10 reps, over two to four sets.
Everything else being equal, a larger muscle will be more powerful and enduring.
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iv) As i), above, but on exiting the floor ladder, take control of a ball, dribble 10m
round a cone and speed-dribble back to the start.
Can weight training make you a net buster?
Research has indicated that improving kicking power directly through weight training
or other means is unlikely to produce positive results when it comes to greater kicking
power. You will get greater returns by working on your technique. However, greater
muscle power can significantly improve other aspects of play, such as your leap,
sprinting and injury resilience.
Bodyweight exercises
The dreaded ‘burpie’ (squat thrust with jump at the end) still has a place in football
conditioning, as do other body weight moves, such as press-ups and sit-ups. Put them
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into a circuit that lasts (with recoveries) 20-plus minutes and also contains ball skills
and you are onto a winner.
Incorporating ‘keepy uppy’ and short distance passes between players in a circuit will
condition specific power and skill endurance – the ability to perform a precision skill
under conditions of fatigue is crucial for football players.
The core
Pay particular attention to core strengthening exercises, such as crunches and
‘chinnies’ (alternate knee to elbow sit-ups), hyper (back) extensions and the plank. A
strong and dynamic core is required to maintain player solidity on the ball and reduce
injury.
Sit on the floor with knees bent to a 90-degree angle as per normal sit-up. You’ll need
a partner who should carefully toss a football toward you as you reach the top of your
sit-up. At this point you head the ball back to him. You then control the descent of
your body as it returns back to the floor. Complete 10 reps over 4 sets swapping
positions with your partner.
Football-specific circuit
Perform on a ‘20 seconds on, 30 seconds’ off basis
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Football-specific core strength exercise: sit-up with header
Press-ups, squat jumps, crunch, keepy-uppy, simulated headers (alternating left,
double, and right foot leaps from a static or one stride approach), the plank, wall
passes over 10m, alternating left to right foot strikes, burpies, chinnies, single leg
squats, sit-ups with header (see above)). 10m sprints (back and forwards), floor ladder
drills.
Developing football endurance
Forget the 10-mile runs – football is an anaerobic (stop/start) activity. You’ll be much
better off performing various pace running repetitions over distances from 10m to
100m, with short recoveries. Some workout examples:
1. Twenty minutes of jogging, sprinting, walking and half-speed and three-quarter
paced runs. Coach (or fittest player taking part) determines the distance to be run and
the recovery by calling out, for example: ‘20m sprint; walk 15m; 40m three- quarter
pace run; jog back’ and so on. This drill should be contained within one half of the
football pitch.
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2. Pass and sprint drill. Two players stand 10m apart. They perform 20 alternate left
to right leg passes and then turn in opposite directions to sprint 10m round a cone and
back to the start position to perform another set of passes. Take 30 seconds’ recovery
and repeat five times.
3. Players perform 20 press-ups and 20 squats on one goal line, jog to centre circle to
collect the ball, sprint dribble toward the other goal and then shoot from just outside
the penalty area (keeper optional). Repeat five times, with jog back recovery between
efforts.
Sports Coaching: coaches should rely more on
sport science than sports trends
Coaching has always been something of an art
Coaching has always been something of an art. But in a thought-provoking article,
Tom McNab argues that many coaches should pay more heed to science and less to
following the latest trends…
Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds should be obligatory
reading for all coaches. It was written by Charles Mackay back in 1841 and details the
various crazes that have afflicted mankind over the centuries. Among those discussed
are The South Sea Bubble, Tulipomania, and the Crusades. Indeed, the list of lunacies
to which mankind has at some time subscribed is a long one!
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Use these practices and drills in your pre-season training and maintain your fitness
with them in-season, and before long you’ll be challenging for the title – whatever
your level.
Athletics, and in particular running, has not been immune to such delusions. Prior to
the practice of coaching, and in its early years, this was both understandable and
excusable, because science had not yet been extensively applied to sport. However, it
is less excusable now, especially when some degree of scientific scrutiny can be
applied to each new technique or training method.
Past (and present) delusions
It might be worthwhile to cast our eyes back to history to consider some past delusions
and some that are still in vogue today (see boxes 1-8). Now, not all of these ideas
were totally misguided; some simply represent misapplications of valid training
methods. However, I hope that they might, in their totality, put in perspective some
of the flabby thinking that has often invaded some recent coaching methods.
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As I said at the outset, not all of the methods described here have been discredited.
Some (like interval training and 100 miles a week) were simply misused or misapplied.
Some, like circuit training (though of some value for the unfit) must be seriously
questioned as a means of training for mature athletes. And some, like speedball, are
just plain daft! The problem is that all have been at some time accepted as Holy Writ,
and this of course begs the question of how many of our present widely accepted
training methods will stand up to serious scientific scrutiny.
It is, I believe, possible to determine which course a coach has attended by the drills
he presents to his athletes a week later! The big toe drill, the left eyebrow drill, a
drill for the index finger devised by Professor Alucard of Transylvania University – any
or all of these can be adopted by coaches simply because that drill has become the
current orthodoxy. In very few cases are these drills subjected to even the slightest
scrutiny. This is often because coaches believe they must surely be right – they are
after all being proposed either by an ex-international or by the coach of a prominent
athlete!
Thus, within a week after any course, various mutations of these drills surface all over
the place, many as different from what were originally demonstrated as I am from
Hercules! At this point I should raise my hand and plead guilty; I have for years used
and developed the running drills of the late Bud Winter (former US Olympic track
coach). Indeed, these drills helped to take British 100m runner Greg Rutherford from
around 11.50s to 10.38s in two years. But then these were not isolated drills taken out
of the event, but focus-drills that all were practiced within the skill of running itself.
Effective drills are all about transfer of training and might therefore better be called
‘related practices’. Assuming it’s valid and practised within the skill of the sport
itself, to be effective any drill must be applied within the full movement as soon as
possible if there is to be successful transfer. However, what is more often observed on
the training ground is ‘drilling’, with athletes of widely varying abilities, and all for
some reason doing the same number of repetitions, but in isolation, with no early
transfer to the event itself!
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Drills training transfer
There is ample precedent for this type of activity. I well remember land drills,
deployed as late as the 1950s as a means of learning to swim. The fact that, when I
was placed in the pool, I was still quite unable to swim bothered my teacher not a jot.
He had taken me through the drill. The fact that I could not swim was my fault!
Football drills
Let’s take a look at football, where the Dutch coach Coerver has devised a series of
ball drills for children. These include the ‘Cruyff step-over’, the ‘Ronaldo shuffle’ and
many others. However, Coerver tries to put these mini-skills into two against one and
small team games as early as possible, in order that there is effective transfer.
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Without that, they remain sterile drills with little practical value.
All of this is not to deny that most drills have some value. What I’m hoping to do here
is to question the amount of time spent on them, (particularly with beginners), to
stress the need to secure transfer, and the importance of subjecting each new drill to
rigorous technical scrutiny. Each moment we spend with an athlete must have a
justifiable purpose and measurable benefits.
It is said that the discus thrower Wolfgang Schmidt of the former East German
Republic admitted that, although he described dozens of discus drills to coaches eager
to learn new techniques, he only ever used two of these drills himself. His explanation
was that he was only providing what coaches wanted to hear, and what they wanted
was to return to their athletes with a fresh set of drills!
The ‘good old days’ are usually only evidence of bad memory. But in the past, national
coaches tended to act as a filter for any new ideas. Now, however (in the UK at least),
the link between our voluntary coaches and practical international level coaches who
are capable of subjecting new methods to some degree of rational scrutiny has gone.
But there is no good reason why coaches cannot create filters of their own by
subjecting new and fashionable drills and trends to good old-fashioned scientific
scrutiny. This being said, it is important to repeat that coaching is not a science, but
rather a practical art – it is how we deploy scientifically tested methods that will
determine our success as coaches. But someone or something must surely be created
to protect us from another speedball and to evaluate Professor Alucard’s index finger
drill!
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Summary
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Football Training Drills for Improving Energy
Systems During Pre-season
Football Tips and Exercises to Make You Ready for the New
Season
Article at a glance:
 The energy requirements of football are outlined;
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 The principles of pre-season training are discussed, particularly the importance
of skills-based fitness training;
 Examples are given of these principles applied in practice.
‘I wouldn’t say pre-seasons are a lot easier now but they’re a lot better,’ says the
Villa striker. ‘All I can remember is you didn’t get to see a ball for four or five days.
As soon as you reported back for training it was straight into running morning and
afternoon. I think if you asked a lot of older players, they would say that’s exactly
what it was like. The difference nowadays is that you see the ball right away, the
first day. Yes, we still do running but it’s not so intense, pounding the roads for a
couple of hours. It’s a hell of a lot different.’
Kevin Philips, Aston Villa striker, 2006
Sports science and modern technology has had a major effect on football training over
the past 10 years. Many teams have become much more analytical about their players’
work rate in games, and also in training, by introducing tools such as game analysis
and heart rate monitors, in order to gain an accurate understanding of the physical
demands of players in games.
The structure and training methods in football throughout the season have also
changed significantly and the period of pre-season training has seen some of the
biggest and most significant changes, due to the importance of ensuring that players
starting the season are in the best possible shape, and the need to maintain their
fitness throughout the season.
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Effective pre-season football training is not just about running around the football
pitch in order to shed those off-season pounds. According to Jim Petruzzi, a much
more scientific approach is needed, which combines energy systems training with skill
development
Gone are the days when players would report to pre-season training and told they
would not see a ball for two weeks. Small-sided games and ball-related exercises now
comprise a major part of training within the modern professional game. A perfect
example of this was the preparation that the Korean team (widely acknowledged to be
one of the best prepared teams in the tournament) adopted in preparation for the
2002 World Cup finals.
In a review, Verheijen described how initially the Korean players could not maintain
their desired pace for the full 90 minutes(1). Players made high-intensity runs less
frequently and there were fewer ‘explosive actions’ as the second half progressed.
After a systematic training programme, they were able to maintain a higher tempo for
the entire match and the recovery between explosive efforts was dramatically
improved.
The energy requirements of footballers
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Football incorporates periods of high-intensity efforts interspersed with periods of
lower-intensity exercise. The physiological demands of football require players to be
competent in several aspects of fitness, which include aerobic and anaerobic power,
muscle strength, flexibility and agility.
Jargonbuster
Alactic
the energy pathway which permits athletes to work at very high intensity for
over 10-15 seconds without lactic acid production or the use of oxygen
Figure 1 below illustrates an actual heart rate plot from a professional footballer using
a heart rate monitor taken during a pre-season game; notice the continuously varying
heart rate but with high average peak values.
Figure 1: Actual heart rate plot of professional footballer
Date
and
Time
15/07/2006
14:12
Duration
3:07:30.0
Heart Rate
Average
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Overall, the game of football is essentially aerobic with intermittent anaerobic and
alactic bursts of energy. Outfield players average heart rates of about 160bpm during
football games and operate at 75-80% of their maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max),
which is comparable to marathon running. However, football is not characterised by
steady heart rates of 160bpm, which are sustained for 90 minutes of play; heart rates
are continually fluctuating depending on the nature of the activity the player is
performing.
153
BPM
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Running
Selection
(red bar)
0:27:30 – 3:05:25
(2:37:55.0)
Heart Rate
Maximum
190
BPM
At the professional level, the contemporary game of football seems to be more
demanding than suggested in much of the early literature(2), which therefore suggests
a more systematic approach to training is needed(3).A comparison of the work rates of
English Premier League players over two seasons (1998-1999 and 1999-2000) with
previous observations of top English League players before 1992 shows that today’s
players cover approximately 1.5kms more ground in a game than their earlier
counterparts(4) – a difference that is apparent for all the playing positions.The data
for the 1997-98 season shows that compared with the 1991-92 season, there is also
evidence of a faster tempo to the game, including more movement of the ball and
shorter breaks in play. This is probably partly due to changes in the rules, such as the
omission of the back pass and also advances in sports science and player
conditioning.However, despite the high aerobic demands necessary to sustain work
output for 90 minutes, games are often decided on the quality of explosive efforts,
which depend on anaerobic and alactic bursts of energy; for example, to get to the
ball first, leap above an opponent, spring into a goal-scoring position or to close down
an opponent and deny them space to pass or shoot at goal.The simulation of the
exercise intensity corresponding to match play has enabled sport scientists to study a
number of aspects of play under laboratory conditions. Observations highlight the
value of exercising with the ball where possible, notably using activity drills in small
groups. Small-sided games have particular advantages for young players, both in
providing a physiological training stimulus and a suitable medium for skills work. While
complementary training may be necessary in specific cases, integrating fitness training
into a holistic process is generally advisable.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Sport
Principles of pre-season training
A successful pre-season programme is one that incorporates all of the necessary
components to enable players to maximise their performance as soon as the season
commences, and to be able to sustain peak physical condition throughout the season.
These fitness components often vary with the individual player, the positional role in
the team and the team’s style of play. Other considerations include the physical
demands of the game, the current level of fitness of a particular player and what the
team is striving to achieve. To meet these requirements, a well-designed pre-season
training programme that addresses the specific demands of each footballer is a must.
Because of this, it is worth considering physical and physiological tests at the start of
your pre-season schedule to see how the players are doing, and to evaluate their
preparation plans. These tests give information on the levels of endurance, speed,
muscular endurance, strength, coordination, technical, and tactical elements during
the preparation period.”A successful pre-season programme is one that incorporates
all of the necessary components to enable players to maximise their performance as
soon as the season commences“A pre-season preparation period covers the period
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Adapting these games to meet the physiological demands of football is important.
Football is played by two teams of 11 players performing in an area of approximately
100m by 60m. However, during training, it is common practice to reduce both the
number of players on the pitch and the size of the pitch, which has the effect of
increasing the proportion of anaerobic/explosive work required. These small-sided
games are one of the most common drills used by coaches in football training; whereas
in the past small-sided games were mainly used to develop the technical tactical
abilities of the players, they are now being employed by amateur and professional
teams as an effective tool to improve physiological aspects of the game(6).
Changing approach to conditioning
Although it’s true that footballers cover large distances during a match, it’s important
to note that football players are continuously alternating between anaerobic and
aerobic activity, which allows recovery to take place. As a consequence, football is
characterised by one dominant energy system in the body (aerobic) but with the two
other energy systems (anaerobic alactic and anaerobic lactic) that enable higherintensity outputs to play a vital role. Training all three energy systems, therefore, is
important.
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from the beginning of team training until the first official match. The length of these
training periods may differ from one country to another. During this training period,
physical conditioning should be composed mainly of games and exercises with a ball.
The frequency and number of training sessions should be increased gradually as the
season approaches(5).Paul Aigbogun, coach of the San Francisco Seals team, speaks of
some of his favourite practices demonstrating how the ball can be incorporated into
training for physiological benefits: ‘Some of my favourite practices are crossing and
finishing, keep ball, building up to a small-sided game, starting at 1 v 1, building up
to 2 v 2, 3 v 3, 4 v 4, probably up to a maximum of 8 v 8. Another one of my favourite
practices is attacking team play, 11 v 6’.
Jargonbuster
Anaerobic lactic
Short duration (1-2 minutes) high-intensity energy pathway involving the
breakdown of glycogen (glycolysis) in the absence of oxygen, with the
formation of ATP plus lactic acid
Traditionally, footballers have used interval training to develop aerobic fitness.
However, the use of small-sided games has recently been recommended as an ideal
training method for improving fitness and competitive performance in football,
because match-specific small-sided games can effectively improve the fitness of the
cardiovascular system while mimicking match-specific skill requirements(7,8). Other
advantages include increased player motivation, training the capacity to perform
skilled movements under pressure and a reduced rate of training injuries.
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Scientific research has established that five-a-side football drills on a pitch measuring
50m x 40m can produce heart rate responses within the intensity range previously
shown to be effective for improving aerobic fitness and football performance
(performing running interval training at 90 to 95% of maximal heart rate)(9).
Pre-season anaerobic training – One approach is to work on general anaerobic
conditioning using quality interval training, which can be performed by performing
football-related activities. In practice, that means alternating maximum speed sprints
with very light jogging or walking. Workouts should last about 20-30 minutes and
consist of 7-10 second sprints and 30-50 seconds of low-intensity jogging or walking,
giving an aerobic/anaerobic training ratio of 5:1. For example, you could play 1 v 1,
where one player is defending a goal on the edge of the 18-yard line. The other player
sprints at full pace from the other 18-yard line, receives the ball on the halfway line
and sprints towards the goal aiming to get a shot on target. He then jogs backs and
repeats the same drill.
Summary of energy Systems in football:
1. Anaerobic alactic, high intensity. Duration up to 15 seconds; used in explosive
efforts and short sprints, kicking, tackling etc;
2. Anaerobic lactic, moderate-high intensity. Duration of 15-120 seconds; used
in longer sprints and sustained high-intensity efforts (heart rate around 90% of
maximum);
3. Aerobic moderate to low intensity 120 seconds plus used while jogging,
walking, recovery between harder efforts etc.
Aerobic activities
Anaerobic activities
Walking
Walking backwards Jumping
Jogging
Running at speeds less than ¾ maximum
pace
Most tackling and contact situations
Accelerating and changing direction quickly
Running at speeds greater than ¾
maximum pace
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Examples of principles in practice
An example of this was a training drill that Bansgo conducted with Zambrotta while he
was assistant coach at Juventus. The drill was for Zambrotta to play the ball from the
edge of his own box to a midfielder, sprint and then receive the ball inside the
opposite half and run with the ball, cutting back inside and striking it with his left leg.
The aerobic/anaerobic training ratio was 5:1 – ie very specific to football.Pre-season
speed training – Here’s an example of a speed drill that combines skill and fitness
training. Divide the players into two equal groups, placing them both in a single line
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Constructing a football-specific pre-season training sessionThe following is a guide
you can use to help you plan your own pre-season training sessions. As well as simple
running drills, you can also incorporate the relevant work/rest/intensity combinations
into football-specific drills.
Speed
Exercise (secs)
Rest
Intensity
Repetitions
2-10
5 times exercise duration
Maximal
2-10
Building speed/endurance
Exercise (secs)
Rest
Intensity
Repetitions
20-40
5 times exercise duration
Almost maximal
2-10
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formation, and have the two players at the front of the two groups facing each other
at a distance of about 20 metres apart. Player A (the player at the front of the line)
from group one passes the ball to the other player A (the player at the front of the
line in group two) and sprints to the other side to the back of group two. Player A from
group two receives the ball, controls and passes the ball then sprints to the back of
group one. Each player repeats this with the emphasis being on speed. After passing
the ball, it should take about 3 seconds for the player to sprint 20 metres, with a short
rest before performing the exercise again.Pre-season aerobic training – Examples
include drills lasting 2-3 minutes with a work/rest ratio of 1:1 working at low intensity
or continuous low-intensity work over a period of 20 minutes. Alternatively you could
play a small-sided game such as 4 v 4, though if you wanted to work solely on the
aerobic system, these games would need to be played at low intensity to keep aerobic
activity to a minimum.
Maintaining speed/endurance
Exercise (secs)
Rest
Intensity
Repetitions
30-90
30-90 seconds
Almost maximal
2-10
Intensity
Repetitions
Aerobic high intensity
Exercise (mins)
Rest
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2-5
Same as exercise duration
90%+ of heart rate
maximum
4-6
Exercise (mins)
Rest
Intensity
Repetitions
8-10
1-2 minutes
70-80% of heart rate
maximum
2-4
As a rule of thumb, training should involve regular use of the ball wherever possible as
this will not only help develop the specific muscles involved in match play, but also
improve technical and tactical skills and help keep players interested. This is where
small-sided games offer an advantage and many coaches such as Marcello Lippi,
formerly at Juventus, and winner of the 2006 World Cup with Italy, are big believers in
the positive effects of small-sided games.
SummarySmall-sided games and football-related activities, as highlighted, have a
number of benefits. Footballers love nothing more than to play football, and while the
physiological aspect of football is one of the most important factors in players
performing at their best, incorporating functional activity, small-sided games, and
football-specific activity is bound to make sessions more enjoyable for the players
while improving their physical fitness to meet the demands of the game.
Jim Petruzzi is a performance coach, specialising in sports science and sports
psychology, who works with several professional football clubs and international teams
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Aerobic low intensity
References
1. Verheijen Conditioning for Soccer 2003; 1/275-276
2. Insight – The FA Coaches Association Journal 2004; 2(7):56-57
3. Journal of Human Movement Studies 1976; 2:87-97
4. J Sports Sci Med 2001; 6:63-70
5. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl 1994; 619:1-155
6. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36(3):218-221
7. Balsom, PD. Precision Football. Kempele, Finland. Polar Electro Oy 1999
8. Sports Coach 2002; 24(4):18-20
9. Journal of Sports Sciences 2000; 18:885-892
10.Ankle injuries are more common than hamstring
tears in footballers
10.
Ankle injuries can be tackled by proprioception training
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11. Contrary to popular belief, it’s not hamstring tears but ankle injuries that are the
most common injury in footballers. And when footballers do sustain ankle
injuries, there are three common treatment strategies employed to help prevent
reoccurrence; strength training (to strengthen muscles and ligaments that
stabilise the ankle), orthotic inserts (placed in the shoe to try and place the foot
in a more ‘biomechanically neutral’ position and so prevent injury) and
proprioception training (which mainly involves balance training and enhancing
the ability of the ankle/foot structures to respond to and control external forces).
13. * Strength training;
* Orthotic use;
* Proprioception training;
* Control group (no intervention).
14. The players were then monitored for the rest of the season, during which data
on the frequency of ankle sprain re-injury data were collected. There were no
significant differences among the groups in the number of exposures (ie all the
groups were exposed to the same degree of injury risk in terms of time, matches
played etc), but the incidence of ankle sprains in players in the proprioception
training group was significantly lower than in the control group. However, while
the risk was also reduced in the strength and orthotic groups, the reduction was
not large enough to be considered statistically significant and the researchers
concluded that only the proprioception training group showed a significant
reduction in rates of re-injury. Of course this is not to say that strength training
and orthotics don’t have benefits; many rehab programmes use a combination of
strength and proprioception training – something not assessed in this study. It
does suggest however, that proprioception training is a crucial element in the
prevention of ankle re-injury.
Am J Sports Med 2007; 22 [Epub ahead of print]
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
12. But which of these three single interventions is most effective at reducing the
incidence of further ankle injury? That’s the question that Iranian researchers
have been trying to address in a study on 80 male footballers in the first division
of a men’s league who had all experienced previous ankle inversion sprains.
The players were randomly assigned to one of four groups, each of which
contained 20 subjects:
Head injuries in Football
No long-term risk from concussion in football
Football Injuries to the head
Multiple concussions do not damage footballers’ brains: that’s the encouraging
conclusion of a new study from Australia, which directly contradicts the findings of
previous research. Earlier studies had suggested that footballers with a history of
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concussion show cognitive (thinking) impairment by comparison with athletes with no
such history.
In the current study, 521 male Australian rules footballers completed a brief medical
history questionnaire and then performed a series of six cognitive tasks assessing
reaction time, decision-making, attention, learning and memory.
For analysis purposes, the athletes were divided into five groups, as follows:
No history of concussion (244 subjects);
One concussion (95);
Two concussions (72);
Three concussions (48);
Four or more concussions (62).
The researchers found no association between the number of previous concussions and
performance in the cognitive tasks.
‘Evidence based reviews of the literature suggest that sustaining several concussions
over a sporting career does not necessarily result in permanent neurological damage or
increased risk of future concussion,’ the researchers point out.
They conclude: ‘These findings support the current consensus management guidelines
proposing that return to play should be determined by clinical evaluation of the
individual athletes rather than by categorisation of the athlete according to their selfreported history of concussion…’
Br J Sports Med 2006; 40:550-551
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
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Football players' balance is inferior
Comparison of standing balance in dancers and football players
Could dancing and soccer technique be comparable?
The possible benefits of dancing for developing athletic balance and agility were
discussed by Peak Performance recently. Now a new US study on dancers and
footballers appears to provide further confirmation of these benefits.
Thirty two female collegiate soccer players were compared with 32 dancers for a
number of measures of standing balance using ‘centre of pressure’ measurements,
which involved balancing on a special pressure sensitive mat while the following were
recorded:
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 The degree of sway from vertical (ie how stable they remained when standing
upright);
 The centre acquisition time (the time required to achieve vertical balance
after performing a movement);
 The sway path length and velocity.
The results showed that while the scores from 15 of the 20 balance tests were not
significantly different between the two groups, the dancers achieved superior scores
in the other five tests. The Harvard Medical School researchers went on to conclude
that: ‘Dancers have certain standing balance abilities that are better than those of
soccer players,’ and also that ‘the COP measurements in this study can be used as a
tool in future studies investigating standing balance in different groups of athletes.’
Hamstring injuries: A Study
Surgical treatment of partial hamstring tears, a common hamstring injury, is successful
in most cases, even after conservative treatment has failed. That’s the encouraging
conclusion of Finnish researchers, following the largest study of hamstring injury
surgery to date, focusing particularly on soccer training.
Forty-seven athletes – 32 men and 15 women – with partial hamstring tears had surgery
to repair the damage over an 11-year period between 1994 and 2005. They included 13
international-level professional athletes, 15 competitive-level athletes and 19
recreational athletes from a variety of sports, most commonly football.
Forty-two of the patients had been treated conservatively, with unsatisfactory results,
and the remaining five had been offered surgery shortly after sustaining their injuries.
Ten of the 28 professional and competitive level athletes continued to take part in
their sport before surgery but complained of pain, weakness and impaired
performance. The other 18 athletes were prevented by their symptoms from
performing at all.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Hamstring injury solution?
The surgical treatment involved reattaching the torn tendons to their point of origin in
the athletes’ legs. They had to use an elastic bandage for one to two weeks afterwards
and were allowed to begin partial weight bearing within two weeks and full weight
bearing after two to four weeks.
Follow-up over an average of 36 months showed excellent results in 33 cases (70%) and
good results in nine (19%). The best news was that 41 of the athletes (87%) were able
to return to their former level of sport after an average of five months.
Hamstring strains and tears are common, potentially disabling and even careerthreatening in some cases, the researchers point out. ‘According to our results, it
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seems that excellent or good outcomes may be expected after surgical repair in most
cases of partial proximal hamstring tear. However, surgery is technically easier in the
acute [early] phase. If conservative treatment is chosen, the possibility of surgical
treatment should still be kept in mind,’ they conclude, ‘especially if the symptoms are
prolonged.’
Football 'Throw-ins': Attaining maximum
distance
Being able to throw the ball large distances from the touchline confers an obvious
advantage in football, especially if the ball can be propelled into the region of the
opponents’ goal area. But while some football players are renowned for having long
throw-ins, what does the science say about maximising thrown-in distance generally? A
team of British scientists has been trying to answer exactly this question by studying
maximum-effort throws using videography.
In the study, a male football player performed maximum-effort throws using release
angles of between 10 and 60 degrees (the initial inclination of the path of the ball as it
is released from the hands). These throws were then analysed using two-dimensional
videography and the player’s optimum release angle was calculated by substituting
mathematical expressions for the measured relationships between release speed,
release height and release angle into the equations for the flight of a spherical
projectile.
The result indicated that the musculoskeletal structure of the thrower’s body has a
strong influence on the optimum release angle. In the study, using low release angles
helped the player to release the ball with a greater release speed; because the range
of a projectile is strongly dependent on the release speed, this bias toward low
release angles reduced the optimum release angle from 45 degrees (the mathematical
theoretically optimum angle for projectiles generally) to about 30 degrees.
Calculations showed that the distance of a throw may be increased a few metres
further by launching the ball with a fast backspin, but when backspin is applied, the
ball must be launched at a slightly lower release angle than 30 degrees!
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Attaining maximum distance in football ‘throw-ins’
Sports Biomech 2006 Jul; 5(2):243-60
Football Player Injuries - Are they becoming
more frequent?
Football injuries - are they really on the rise?
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With the World Cup in full swing, the media has been full of stories about the
apparently increasing incidence of injuries among professional footballers. But as TJ
Salih explains, the reality is far more complicated than the tabloid headlines would
have you believe
During the run up to the World Cup, few can have been unaware of the increased
reporting of injuries to high profile footballers. Just 10 days before the start of the
tournament, the sporting headlines were full of footballing injury stories. The
Argentina and Barcelona forward Lionel Messi was still recovering from a thigh injury,
while his fellow countryman and Villarreal centre back Gonzalo Rodríguez had
effectively waved goodbye to his chances of going to the World Cup Finals after
tearing a ligament in his left ankle. Meanwhile, the Germany and Bayern Munich
player, Michael Ballack, was also doubtful due to an ankle injury, as was the Dutchman
Rafael van der Vaart of Hamburg, who limped out of training after hurting the same
ankle he thought had healed. And with the British media brimming with stories about
the fitness or otherwise of Michael Owen and Wayne Rooney, it’s been hard to avoid
the conclusion that the overall incidence of footballing injuries is increasing.
However, there’s mixed evidence for this. Increased sport participation does increase
the risk(2), but on an hour-for-hour participation basis, it is likely that the risk has
remained the same (3). The fact that certain injuries can keep high profile players
away from the game for months or even years brings particular injuries into the public
arena. With this in mind, this article reviews the evidence for injury patterns to the
lower limb and spine, the mechanisms of injury, and the trends and possible theories
underlying the findings.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Football is a highly athletic sport with rapid deceleration, acceleration, single-stance
twists, single-stance ballistic movements and aerobatic manoeuvres. This may explain
why the overall level of injury to a professional footballer has been shown to be
around 1,000 times higher than in industrial occupations generally regarded as high
risk (1).
Lower limb injuries
With the advent of Wayne Rooney’s injury in the run-up to the World Cup, metatarsal
fractures have been topical. Rooney fractured the fourth metatarsal in his right foot.
This type of injury has also afflicted other international players, such as Edwin van der
Sar (Netherlands and Manchester United), Gaël Clichy (France and Arsenal), Ivan
Campo (Spain and Bolton) and Paulo Ferreira (Portugal and Chelsea).
The high incidence of metatarsal fractures in football players has raised the question
as to whether modern football boots offer enough protection to the foot and whether
they are to blame for the high number of foot injuries. Indeed, Rooney was wearing a
new Nike model, the Total 90 Supremacy, for the first time on the day that he was
injured.
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Although Nike denies that its boots are linked to a higher risk of injury, Tommy
Docherty, the former manager of Manchester United, said that when he was a
professional football player in the 1950s, it used to take six weeks to break a pair of
boots in and players used to have to put them in a bucket of water (4)!
Another reason why we are hearing more of these types of injury is the terminology
now used and the increased reporting of the injury by the media. Tony Book, a former
professional UK footballer, told the Manchester Evening News that he believes the
name of the injury has changed. He believes the old ‘broken toe’ injury is now
reported as ‘fractured/broken metatarsal’ (4). This changing terminology, coupled
with increased media reporting, may be giving rise to a perceived increase in the
number of injuries. There may not be more metatarsal injuries now than there used to
be, but we all certainly know more about them (6).
Before MRI scans were widely available, ‘ankle pain’ was common, but now we have
various degrees of ‘bone bruises’. Likewise, in 1960, no one had heard of ‘Gilmore’s
Groin’, but by 1990 everyone had one! Again, this indicates that with changing times
and advances in technology, the terminology changes but the underlying injury does
not.
The foot and footwear
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The English Football Association also states that, ‘players are ill-advised to start a
game having not previously worn the boots they are to play in as it may lead to
unnecessary injury’. They also go on to advise how to break in the boots progressively
during training sessions prior to wearing them in a match, and concur with the idea
that soaking them in water may not be a bad idea(5). The theory here is that the
water softens the leather and allows the boot to be broken in faster.
When considering the foot in the context of injury, we have to allow for the position
of the foot on the ground, the forces applied to it and the type of grip available (in
terms of studs or blades) and any additional support offered by the footwear.
Other forces may come into play with the other foot (the non-stance foot), and relate
to the instantaneous forces applied to the toes, foot and ankle in kicking the ball, or
accidentally kicking or being kicked by another player.
Ideally any boot should:
1. provide good grip and traction to allow rapid acceleration/deceleration and change
of direction;
2. provide adequate support and stability for the foot;
3. distribute the load and decrease the shock of impact;
4. protect the foot and toes against direct trauma (ball and another boot);
5. be comfortable and flexible (7).
The older style football boot with its hard toecap and high sides offered protection to
the foot and ankle, but limited the range of motion of both (8). The design of modern
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football boots allows the foot and ankle total freedom of movement to provide
maximum flexibility to the player. But has the modern football boot succeeded in
protecting the player while optimising performance? Also, have the changes led to
injuries elsewhere, such as an increased tendency to rupture the anterior cruciate
ligament, by virtue of increasing torsion on the extended knee?
It is very easy to blame football players’ ‘tools’, but other factors also have to be
taken into account and it is highly unlikely that any single factor is to blame for an
injury pattern. It is also unlikely that any single factor could be isolated unless there
was a large increase in a particular type of injury in association with a particular boot
or playing surface.
What the research says
Research has identified three main factors that influence the increased likelihood of
injuries in football players:
 Intrinsic factors, such as age, previous injury history, fitness and skill level;
 Extrinsic factors such as the amount and quality of training, playing field
conditions, equipment (eg boots, shin guards), subjective exercise overload
during training and matches;
 Violation of the rules (foul play) (9).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The available research on these questions is far from conclusive, as the literature is
full of anecdotal and conflicting evidence. Simply looking at the number of injuries to
the foot is of little value since the forces on the foot cannot be accurately assessed
and the level of play, position on pitch and technique would have to be taken into
consideration.
For example, artificial playing surfaces have been implicated in non-contact injuries of
the lower limb, such as ruptures of the anterior cruciate ligament. Evidence from
research in America has indicated that there may be an increased number of lower
limb injuries when playing on artificial surfaces compared with grass (9, 10). Again,
however, we cannot simply blame artificial grass, as it appears that variations in shoesurface traction can also account for some injuries(11). This includes ground hardness,
dryness, grass cover, grass root density, length of studs on players’ boots and relative
speed of the game. It is possible that measures to reduce shoe-surface traction, such
as ground watering and softening, and players using boots with shorter studs, may
reduce the risk of football injuries (12).
Studies have indicated that up to 87% of injuries in football occur in the lower limb
(thigh, knee and ankle), with only 38% of injuries involving player-to-player contact
(13). With this in mind, non-contact injury mechanisms are under increasing analysis in
order to try to minimise and reduce further injuries.
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Spinal pain and football
Modern football requires exceptional gymnastic abilities in the spine as well as the
lower limbs. The spine, in conjunction with the ‘grounded’ foot, provides the stable
platform for the mobile foot to kick the ball, or for the head to head the ball.
Considering the number of lower limb injuries sustained by football players, it is
surprising that more do not get spinal pain. One possible explanation could be that the
selection process for footballers is such that those with back pain develop symptoms
early in their career and never reach the status of an elite athlete.
Another explanation is that spinal flexibility, spinal muscle strength and highly
developed motor pathways protect the players from the potential damage to the spine
that might result in pain. Indeed, severe back pain is uncommon in footballers and
injury patterns such a spondylolisthesis (as often seen in cricket players) is absent.
One noteworthy exception to this is David Beckham who suffers from back pain. He
has been reported to have one leg (left) shorter than the other; this, together with his
unique kicking style, may put unusual stress on certain areas of his spine and therefore
cause his particular pain and dysfunction.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The spine is a complicated system of segmented levers with 33 joints stacked one on
top of each other, separated by small shock absorbers. It is therefore no wonder that
it occasionally fails. As people age, so do the intervertebral discs, and this process can
start as early as the mid-20s. Players are therefore at increased risk of injury to their
spine during the peak of their career but this is likely to be a feature of degeneration
and heavy demand rather than one of increased rate of injury because of a single
occupational aspect of sport.
Seasonality and overuse injuries
Footballers generally only have four to six weeks off from training and playing. If they
are not involved in cup games or representing their country, they may stop playing in
mid-May and restart pre-season training in July. However, if they are playing for their
country in tournaments (such as the World Cup) most players will be lucky if they have
three to four weeks of not playing football. With this amount of time spent playing,
overuse injuries are not uncommon.
Overuse injuries are unlikely to be a significant influence in overall injury trends. The
risk of injury is related to the time spent playing (just as the risk of a driver crashing a
car is related to the number of miles travelled). Below a certain minimum playing
time, the risk is increased where there is a lack of skill or training or there is poor
fitness, but above this level, increased play, on balance of probabilities, will result in
increased injuries.
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Although this makes sense, research has found that top level football players who also
represented their country in a World Cup (and so played more games than players who
did not play for their country) did not show any increased risk of injury during the
season, and actually had a lower injury risk at training than non-World Cup players
(14).
Pre-season injuries in football are inevitable, possibly due to a number of factors, such
as a decrease in fitness, hard playing surfaces (after the summer), fatigue or
inappropriate content or progression of pre-season training programmes. One study
found that 17% of all injuries occurred during pre-season training, with the average
time lost from these injuries being 22 days. It was also found that younger age groups
(17-25 years old) sustained more pre-season injuries that senior players (26-35+ years
old) (15). Overall, however, injury in youth team (academy) football is approximately
half that of professional players (16).
In this modern era, with increased coverage of football on television, media demand
and financial influence, we all want to know how and why our favourite football
players are getting injured, and when they will be able to play again. For the fans, this
is an important question; for the club and player it is a vital question. With the cost to
professional clubs in England of injuries occurring during an average season estimated
to be in excess of £75m and up to 10% of the professional squad unable to play due to
injury, it is imperative that measures to prevent injuries, and not just to treat them,
are in place.
Studies have shown that better shin pad design may help cut the rate of tibial
fractures (sometimes known as ‘footballers fracture’) (17). However, this particular
study also showed that 85% of footballers wearing shin pads still sustained a tibial
fracture, suggesting there’s a long way to go.
Other simple measures may prevent some of these injuries. These include:
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
What can we learn?
 a joint approach to training between the medical and coaching staff;
 a progressive training regime during the pre-season;
 wearing running trainers or shock absorbent orthotics when the ground is hard
in pre-season;
 using other training methods to get players’ cardiovascular fitness up prior to
running, eg cycling.
Injuries also occur at the amateur level. There are essential differences between the
amateur and professional footballer (apart from the salaries!) and this revolves around
training and pre-game preparation. The lessons that have been learned in professional
football should be used in the amateur game in an attempt to reduce injuries.
Likewise, the lessons from other sports should be used to help professional footballers
improve their game and prevent them from becoming injured.
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References
1) Br J Sports Med 1999; 33:196-203
2) Acta Orthop Scand 1976 Feb; 47(1):118-21
3) Am J Sports Med 2004; 32(1 Suppl):23S-7S
4) Medical News Today, 2nd May 2006
5) The FA.com; 24 June 2003; ‘Close Season Encounters’
6) BBC Sport; Health & Fitness; ‘Metatarsals – a football fad?’
7) The FA.com; 17th March 2004; ‘Putting the boot in’
8) FIFA.com; Feb 2000; ‘Taping Ankles: Prevention or Cure?’
9) Am J Sports Med 2000; 28:S (2000)
10) Am J Sports Med 1992; 20(6):686-94
11) Am J Sports Med 2006; 34(3):415-22
12) Sports med 2002; 32(7):419-32
13) Br J Sports Med 2001; 35;43-47
14) Br J Sports Med 2004; 38:493-497
15) Br J Sports Med 2003; 36:436-441
16) Br J Sports Med 2004; 38;466-471
17) Br J Sports Med 1996; 30;171-175
Sports Injury: Anterior Cruciate Ligament
Facts
New findings on ACL injuries in football
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
TJ Salih is a chartered physiotherapist and worked for Tottenham Hotspur Football
Club for two seasons, before establishing his own clinic, Back2Normal –
www.back2normal.co.uk
Rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in the knee is the injury that causes
the longest lasting disability to footballers. Now a new study from Denmark has shed
unexpected light on the causes of this injury that should help to prevent it in future.
The researchers, from a hospital sports clinic, surveyed 113 patients, consecutively
admitted to their clinic with an ACL rupture sustained while playing football, to
analyse the mechanism behind their injury.
Their key findings – some of them surprising – were as follows:
 Goalies sustained as many ACL injuries as other players;
 62 ACL injuries occurred on the opponent’s half of the field – 18 of them inside
the penalty box;
 There was no statistical difference between the numbers of players in
defensive and offensive roles at the time of injury;
 30 of the injured players were in contact neither with other players nor the
ball at the time of injury and 58 were in contact with the ball alone;
 Only 17 sustained an ACL rupture while being touched or pushed;
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 56 had intended to change their direction towards the side of the injured knee
at the time the ACL was torn, while only ten had intended to turn towards the
uninjured side;
 26 sustained their injury when landing after heading the ball, of whom 20 were
being tackled by an opponent in the air, so jeopardising their landing;
 19 had a previous injury other than an ACL injury in the now ACL-injured knee,
compared with five in the other knee.
The researchers draw two main conclusions from their findings:
Secondly, two distinctive actions – change of direction and landing after heading – are
responsible for the vast majority of ruptures. If players could be trained to perform
these particular moves more safely, the risk of injury could be substantially reduced.
Int J Sports Med 2006; 27:75-79
Powerful, Accurate and Injury Free Kicking A Mental Guide
Kicking Training for Rugby and Football
Training for kicks – just how can you improve kicking performance?
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
First, that ‘the mechanism behind ACL rupture differs from that of other soccerrelated injuries because only a small fraction of the injured players had contact with
another player at the time of the accident. We therefore conclude that tackling and
kicking do not contribute significantly to ACL ruptures in soccer’.
On the face of it, kicking a ball seems the simplest thing in the world. But as John
Shepherd explains, powerful, accurate and injury-free kicking doesn’t just happen by
accident; it requires the right mental approach combined with appropriate skill
development and physical conditioning
Have you ever wondered why you seem to have two left feet, or why you’re prone to
hamstring strains when it comes to kicking a ball? And where you should look when you
are about to put the ball in the net from the penalty spot? Although it’s something we
take for granted, the ability to kick is like any other sports skill in that it can be
developed and improved. And like other sports skills, improvement requires the
correct mental, as well as physical, approach
Using the mind to improve kicking
Mental training can play a vital role when it comes to improving kicking technique and
one of the most important training methods is visualisation, which involves running
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through the performance of a sports skill in the mind. For this to be most effective,
the skill should be practised at real speed; visualising a skill at slower speeds can be
detrimental, as it can ‘pattern’ this skill in the brain at a ‘less than optimal’ velocity –
ie the motor system becomes better at executing the action, but only at lower speeds.
Regular visualisation will bolster confidence, physical practice and maximise the
potential for successful kicking. To aid visualisation a ‘script’ can also be established.
Basically, this is a set of instructions that the athlete runs through repeatedly in their
mind as they visualise the kicking action.
Here is an example that could be used to support the visualisation used by a football
penalty taker:
 I will place the ball calmly and securely on the spot;
 I will look at the goalkeeper to assess his position, inhale, and turn around and
walk back nine steps;
 As I do this, I will breathe out and remind myself of where I am going to place
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the ball;
I will pause, turn towards the goal, and look at where I am going to place the
ball;
I will see the ball going into the net where I want it;
I will breathe in and slowly out before I start my run;
I will start my run;
I will strike the ball cleanly with the in-step of my foot, placing the ball to the
left of the keeper, low and hard into the corner;
I will not lift my head or eyes until the ball is on its way into the back of the
net.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
When visualising a kicking skill, you should find a quiet spot, relax and run through it
in your mind in varying conditions and states of fatigues. For example, an elite rugby
goal kicker could visualise slotting the ball between the posts from a position that is
least preferred (eg on the ‘wrong’ side of the posts), in the wind and rain, in front of a
TV audience of millions and against particular opposition.
Visual acuity
How does David Beckham bend it? The former England captain is one of the world’s
greatest deadball specialists. He has a unique kicking action, which has been
attributed to his specific lower leg physiology, enabling him to give the ball more spin,
curl and dip. His ability to wrap his kicking foot around the ball is enabled by his nonstriking leg seemingly being able to bow almost stick-like, as he strikes the ball. This
drives his kicking foot into the ball in a very unique manner.
So what do you do without Beckham’s legs? Well, research has indicated that the angle
of the approach run when taking a kick will have a significant effect on kicking
biomechanics (the greater the angle the greater the ability to impart swerve, dip and
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curl)(1). And deciding where to place the ball before striking it is crucial, as is where
and how you actually look when you strike the ball.
Japanese researchers considered the latter in regard to short and long in-step kicks(2).
Players were asked to aim at a target; the top three scorers were defined as the ‘highscore group’ (HSG) and the three low scorers were defined as the ‘low-score group’
(LSG). Analysis indicated that:
 The HSG was characterised by longer ‘quiet eye’ durations (constant focus
gaze) on the target prior to kicking;
 The LSG spent less (quiet eye) time focussing of the target prior to kicking;
 The HSG score group kept their eyes down for longer when they struck the ball,
This research corroborates the accepted wisdom of looking at the ball when kicking,
and not where it is going to be kicked when striking it. This is to avoid lifting the head
(and in the case of the research above raising the eyes), which alters the biomechanics
and accuracy of the subsequent kick.
Preferred versus non-preferred kicking foot
Most of us have a preferred kicking foot and a team of researchers from Denmark have
looked at the possible biomechanical reasons for this(3). Seven skilled soccer players
performed maximal speed place kicks with their preferred and non-preferred leg. The
kicks were analysed with high-speed video recording equipment. Among numerous
variables, the rate of force development in the hip flexors and the knee extensors
(quadriceps) was measured using a dynamometer.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
specifically keeping focused on a point between the ball and target.
Not surprisingly, higher ball speeds were achieved with the preferred leg. The
researchers attributed this to higher foot speed at the point of ball impact and a
consequential ‘better inter-segmental motion pattern’ (ie smoother kicking action).
Specifically, in terms of muscle recruitment/action at foot-strike, this was related to
the angular velocity of the thigh.
Research carried out on kicking in Aussie rules football also vindicates the importance
of skill when it comes to kicking optimally with either foot(4). The researchers
concluded that, ‘Kicking a football accurately with a certain velocity over a certain
distance is dependent on the speed of the kicking foot and the quality of the contact
between the foot and the ball – qualities that are primarily skills led.’
Any football player wanting to achieve parity between their kicking legs should
therefore emphasise skill and, to coin a well used phrase in coaching, follow the
mantra that ‘perfect practise makes for perfect performance’. They should also begin
early, during the ‘skill hungry years’, between the ages of 8 and 12, when the body
and mind can most rapidly learn the correct motor skills.
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Kicking conditioning
In most sports, improving strength and power improves performance. So does the same
apply to kicking?
Greek researchers examined the effects of a football strength and technique
conditioning programme on the kinematics (movement of the body/limbs) and
electromyographic (EMG) muscle activity during in-step kicking(5). Ten amateur
football players made up the experimental group (EG) while 10 other players served as
controls.
 Kinematics in the form of three-dimensional data;
 EMG readings from six muscles in the swinging (kicking) and support legs prior
to and after the training programmes;
 Maximum isometric leg press strength;
 10m-sprint performance;
 Maximum speed on a bicycle ergometer.
The researchers discovered that compared to the controls, the EG improved
significantly in relation to maximum ball speed and the linear velocity of the foot and
ankle, and the angular velocity of all the joints during the final phase of the kick (it
has been previously noted that faster foot speed/limb speed results in longer and
more powerful kicking).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The EG followed a 10-week football-specific training programme. This combined
strength and technique exercises. All participants performed an in-step kick using a
two-step approach. The researchers recorded:
However, training had insignificant effects on EMG values, apart from an increase in
the average EMG of the vastus medialis (thigh muscle that contributes to leg
extension, ie kicking). Additionally, maximum isometric strength and sprint times were
significantly improved after training. This lead the researchers to conclude that ‘…the
application of training programmes using soccer-specific strength exercises would be
particularly effective in improving soccer kick performance.’ However, not all the
research backs this up.
Further research from Denmark considered three different 12-week strength training
protocols on 22 elite football players(8). Four groups were established:
1. A high resistance (HR) group who performed 4 sets, 8 reps at 8RM loading;
2. A low resistance (LR) group who performed 4 sets, 24 reps at 24RM loading;
3. A loaded kicking movement group (LK) who performed 4 sets, 16 reps at 16RM
loading (loaded kicking drills include those using elastic bungee or power
chords, which wrap around the foot and allow the kicking action to be
performed against resistance.);
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4. A control group (CO).
When peak isokinetic, concentric and eccentric force was measured, the researchers
discovered that isokinetic knee joint strength was unchanged in the LR, LK, CO groups.
However, the HR strength training players experienced greater eccentric and
concentric force generation capability when kicking. However, despite this apparent
kicking strength gain, actual kicking performance estimated by maximal ball flight
velocity was unaffected – contrasting with the findings of the Greek team.
Thus it appears that experienced footballers can benefit from specific training, but
the effects appear to be peripheral to the actual enhancement of kicking power. The
heavy weight protocol does seem to offer a pathway to increased power but this may
not translate directly into kicking distance due to the specifics of the kicking action
and the high skill requirement. It seems therefore that (as with most technical sport
skills) enhanced strength must be constantly married to technique if this is to
translate into improved performance.
Beating kicking-induced hamstring injuries
Those involved in kicking sports are more prone to hamstring injury. A British team
discovered that the incidence of hamstring injuries for top rugby players was 0.27 per
1,000 player training hours and 5.6 per 1,000 player match hours(9). On average,
injuries resulted in 17 days of lost time, with recurrent injuries (23%) significantly
more severe (25 days lost) than new injuries (14 days lost).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
This researchers concluded that only the heavy-resistance strength training induced
increases in isokinetic muscle strength, and that the actual value of this training was
likely to be more about injury prevention – specifically in terms of providing stability
to the knee joint during fast extension (kicking) movements.
Second-row forwards sustained the fewest (2.4 injuries/1,000 player hours) and the
least severe (7 days lost) match injuries. Running activities accounted for 68% of
hamstring muscle injuries; however, injuries resulting from kicking were the most
severe (36 days lost). Similar relatively high rates of hamstring strain have been
discovered in professional football(10).
In the rugby study it was discovered that players who included Nordic hamstring
exercises in addition to conventional stretching and strengthening exercises in their
conditioning routines, had lower incidences and severities of hamstring injury during
training and competition.
The Nordic hamstring exercise specifically develops eccentric strength in the
hamstrings. This is important as it is during the ‘lengthening under load’ eccentric
muscular action phase of numerous speed/power movements, including kicking when
hamstring injuries are more likely. Researchers have in fact estimated that 85% of the
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energy involved in kicking at and after foot-strike is a consequence of the eccentric
action of the hamstrings(11).
Conclusions
References
1) Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36(6):1017-23
2) Percept Mot Skills 2006; 102(1):147-156
3) J Sports Sci 2002; 20(4):293-9
4) J Sci Med Sport 2003; 6(3):266-74
5) Scand J Med Sci Sports 2006; 16(2):102-10
6) Scand J Med Sci Sports 2006; 16(5):334-44
7) J Sports Sci 2006; 24(9):951-60
8) Acta Physiol Scand 1996; 156(2):123-9
9) Am J Sports Med 2006; 34(8):1297-306. Epub 2006 Feb 21
10) Br J Sports Med 2004; 38(6):793)
11) Am J Sports Med 1998; (6):185-193
tournament football
Get o
Tournament Football : What Sven can learn from research in the
lead-up to the 2006 World Cup
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Specific conditioning methods seem to be slightly peripheral (particularly for
experienced players), while high resistance weight training has its advocates and can
be useful in terms of injury prevention, as can eccentric hamstring exercises.
However, it appears that the biggest factor for improving kicking ability in terms of
accuracy and distance are repeated, technically correct practices, with consideration
paid to where to ‘look’. Mental training can also be highly beneficial.
‘In tournament football, fitness and conditioning are absolutely vital. They are among
the most important things. You also need a little bit of luck with injuries and penalties
and things like that.’ So says Sven Goran Eriksson (1). Wise words indeed from the
England manager, but can PP make him any the wiser? This article takes an in- depth
look at some of the key factors that impinge on creating a winning World Cup team, by
John Shepherd.
Next year’s playing season is designed to give the England squad more time to prepare
for the 2006 World Cup in Germany. But will the rigours of a Premiership and European
season for the majority of the English-based players have taken its toll on their
readiness for the biggest tournament on earth?
Research by Ekstrand and his colleagues from Linkoping University in Sweden looked
specifically at the domestic season’s toll on topflight footballers from across Europe in
the lead- up to the 2002 World Cup, focusing on the impact of number of matches
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played on injury rates (2). Team doctors at 11 of the best football clubs in Europe
monitored their players continuously over the 2001/02 season, when 65 of the players
participated in the Korea/Japan World Cup. During the tournament the clubs reported
the injuries sustained by these players, while three international experts analysed how
well they played.
Perhaps surprisingly, given that they played more games, the World Cup players did
not experience a greater injury rate than non-World Cup players during the season,
However, 29% of them sustained injuries in Korea and Japan. And, ominously, 23 (60%)
of the 38 players who had played more than one match in the week before the World
Cup incurred injuries and/or underperformed during the tournament. This led the
Swedish researchers to conclude that the number of games played in the last 10 weeks
before the tournament was particularly crucial in terms of potential injury risk and/or
underperformance.
What of the demands of international football? Are those who play regularly at this
level any more prone to injury than others? And should Sven forgo friendlies in the
lead-up to Germany in consequence? This question was the subject of further research
by Ekstrand, who carried out a longitudinal study of the Swedish team between 1991
and 1997(3).
During this six-year period the team played 73 official matches and attended three
training camps. Fifty-seven of these matches and the three training camps were
included in the study, amounting to a total of 6,235 training and 1,010 match hours.
Exposure to football was recorded individually for each player, and the team doctor
examined all injuries.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Domestic games played by Europe’s elite varied between 40 and 76. Not surprisingly,
top players (or at least those in the more successful sides) played more matches,
especially during the final period of the season, when there were more cup
commitments. In all, World Cup players played 46 matches, compared with 33 for nontournament players.
In all there were 71 injuries (40 incurred during training and 31 during match play).
Five (16%) of the match injuries were major and resulted in more than four weeks out
of the game. The incidence of injury during training was 6.5 per 1,000 player hours,
while the incidence during matches was 30.3/1,000 hours.
Interestingly, a significantly higher injury incidence was found in matches lost than
those won or drawn (52.5 compared with 22.7/1,000 hours), although no significant
difference in injury rates was found between competitive and friendly matches and
between matches played on home, away and neutral ground.
These findings led Ekstrand to conclude that the risk of injury when playing for a
national team was comparable to that previously reported for professional football at
a high level. However, given his previous findings (2), it would seem prudent for the
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English Football Association (FA) to limit their team to essential games only in the
lead-up to the World Cup, to minimise the risk of injury and impaired performance in
the tournament itself. England should also be careful to win all its games!
The quote from Eriksson in my introductory paragraph mentions the importance of
luck, and there is certainly a huge element of luck involved in injury risk, as FIFA, the
international governing body of football, discovered when analysing the incidence and
type of player injuries that occurred during the 2002 World Cup (5).
So, statistically speaking, luck will play a prominent part in determining Eriksson’s
players’ injury risk, as there is not much than can be done to avoid contact injuries,
especially if these are instigated deliberately by players on the opposing side. (Note:
FIFA will be pushing the importance of ‘fair play’ in Germany in an attempt to reduce
the incidence of deliberate fouls).
How to follow in Brazil’s footsteps
Luis Filipe Scolari, manager of the victorious Brazil side in the 2002 Football World
Cup, summarised the reasons for his team’s victory in the following terms(4):
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The team doctors of all the participating teams reported all injuries after each match
on a standardised injury report form, and a total of 171 injuries were reported from
the 64 matches, equating to an injury rate of 2.7 per match. Of all the injuries, 73%
were contact injuries and the remainder incurred without contact with another player.
Half of the contact injuries (37% of total injuries) were caused by foul play as defined
by the team physician and the injured player.
 The staff and team created a ‘winning spirit’;
 The staff focused the energies on convincing the younger players that they
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could win if they wanted to. The veteran players already believed in their
ability;
Scolari interviewed all of the players’ individual club coaches, allowing him to
gather additional information on his team;
The staff constantly gathered statistical data on all of the team’s games and
shared the information with the players, focusing on where goals were scored
for and against;
They put considerable effort into exciting the passions of the players as they
felt that volatile Latinos were more likely to be led by their hearts than their
minds!
Physical fitness tests were carried out for all players at the very beginning of
training so that there was a clear baseline from which improvements could be
measured;
The coaching staff focused on giving the players organisation and discipline as a
team;
They focused a lot of energy on winning the first game, as this was seen to be
vital for mental preparation.
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Hamstrings and hydration
It is beyond the scope of this article to go into detail about football conditioning and
pre-conditioning methods. However, I do want to focus on hamstring protection and
player hydration since these are among the most important determinants of player
endurance (in all senses of the word) in tournament football. A strained hamstring will
almost inevitably mean the end of the line for a player – at least as far as this
particular tournament is concerned – while inadequate hydration can significantly
impair performance and even increase injury risk.
Although there was considerable variation in the way the different clubs trained for
flexibility, the researcher discovered (surprisingly, given its limited relevance to
match and training conditions) that static (passive) stretching was the most popular
method.
In terms of injuries, hamstring strains accounted for 11% of the total and one third of
all muscle strains, while about 14% of hamstring strains were re-injuries. HSRs were
most prevalent in the Premiership (13.3 for every 1,000 playing hours) and least
prevalent in Division 2 (7.8 per 1,000 hours), with forwards mostly likely to be injured.
Most (97%) hamstring strains were grade I and II and two thirds of them occurred late
during training/matches.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
UK researchers Dadebo and a team from Manchester Metropolitan University
investigated the relationship between current flexibility training protocols and
hamstring strain rates (HSRs) in English professional football clubs (6). Data on
flexibility training was collected from 30 clubs in the four divisions during the 1998/99
season.
Just to explain this terminology, a grade I strain might consist of small micro-tears in
the muscle; a grade II strain would be a partial muscle tear and a grade III would be a
severe or complete rupture of the muscle.
When analysing injury rates in relation to flexibility protocols, the researchers
concluded that about 80% of hamstring strain rate variability was accounted for by
stretching holding time. In other words, the longer the muscle was stretched, the
more likely a player was to suffer a hamstring strain.
The implication of this research is that if hamstring strains are to be reduced among
elite players, club coaches need to be better educated on the merits of active warmups, including specific stretches (of which more later).
Fluid loss can inhibit performance and increase injury risk. We must hope that the
England team will not assume that because the games are to be played in European
conditions, albeit summer ones, there will be less need to pay attention to player
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hydration, as a large body of research suggests that such a lax attitude could lead to
the team flying home early.
Maughan and colleagues from Loughborough University measured fluid balance during
a 90minute pre-season training session in the first team squad of an English Premier
League football team (7). Sweat loss during the session was measured by changes in
body mass after taking account of fluids ingested in drink and excreted in urine. Sweat
composition was analysed by patches attached to the skin at four sites.
Maughan concluded that sweat losses of water and solute (liquid containing
electrolytes) in footballers in training can be substantial. However, there was
considerable variation in losses between players, even in the same exercise and
environmental conditions. There was also considerable variation in voluntary drinking,
which was generally insufficient to compensate for fluid losses.
So it seems that Sven and his backroom team need to design and implement individual
fluid replacement programmes for each player. To help them, Maughan recommends
that players should drink enough to limit weight loss to 1-2% of their pre-training
session/match weight. Since salt loss can make players more prone to cramping, he
also advises that those with a tendency to cramp should consider taking salt
supplements.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
On the day of testing, the weather was warm: 24-29°C, with moderate humidity (4664%) – similar conditions to those expected next summer in Germany. Over the course
of the training session, the mean body mass loss was 1.10kg, equivalent to 1.37% of
pre-training body mass. Mean fluid intake was 971ml and estimated mean sweat loss
was 2,033ml, with a total sweat sodium loss of 99mmol, corresponding to a salt
(sodium chloride) loss of 5.8g.
The whole issue of how to calculate your personal fluid needs was covered in a recent
issue of Peak Performance (PP 212, 2005) and the message of the article, written by
Professor Maughan himself, is summarised in the box below.
Calculating personal fluid needs
As a rule of thumb, during an endurance event you should drink just enough to be sure
you lose no more than about 1-3% of pre-race weight. This can be achieved in the
following way:
 Record your naked body weight immediately before and after a number of
training sessions, along with details of distance/duration, clothing and
weather conditions;
 Add drink taken during the session to the amount of weight lost, ideally
working in kilograms and litres, since 1kg of weight is roughly equivalent to 1L
of fluid;
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 After a few weeks you should begin to see some patterns emerging and can
calculate your sweat rate per hour. This may be as little as 200-300ml or as
much as 2-3L, depending on your physiology, your speed, clothing and
conditions;
 Once you know what your sweat losses are likely to be in any given set of
environmental conditions, you can plan your drinking strategy for any
particular event.
Ron Maughan, PP 212, 2005
Finally, we need to consider how to warm up for the big games. And here Professor
Angel Spassov has some key pointers for the England side. A football conditioning
expert from Bulgaria, now based in the US, Spassov has worked with no fewer than six
World Cup squads, most recently Portugal during Euro 2002. Although his warm-up is
far from revolutionary (from a general sports conditioning perspective) it is
nevertheless very thorough and specific (see panel above right) (8).
Spassov’s active warm-up
1. Non-specific warm-up
 6-8 minutes of jogging, followed by neck, shoulder, lower back and abdominal
stretches;
 Use 2-3 different routines with 10-12 repetitions of each;
 Next target legs (hamstrings, hip flexors, abductors, adductors, quads and calf
muscle) with passive and dynamic stretches. Perform 23 standard routines
with 10-12 repetitions;
 Be sure to increase speed of performance for every set of the dynamic
stretches;
 Next perform varying-intensity sprints in different directions;
 By the end of this part of the warm-up, players’ pulse rates should have risen
to 160-170 beats per minute.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Warm-ups for big games
2. Specific warm-up
 Begin with various kicks of the ball with both legs and various technical moves
with the ball, such as dribbling and stopping the ball;
 These should progress to medium intensity with one other player and then to
high intensity, with more players combining into groups to practise all
technical skills at the highest possible intensity and speed.
Spassov advocates a passive and active warm- up, the latter incorporating a specific
warm-up. For the former he recommends that players loosen their muscles 30-60
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minutes before the game by rubbing ankles, knees, all the muscles of the legs, lower
back, neck and shoulders with heating ointment – preferably one that is odourless and
not too hot on the skin.
The warm-up that follows is divided into two parts, as described in the panel.
Spassov’s suggested warm-up makes great sense and should control players’
progression to match readiness. With the first part of the warm-up performed alone,
players should be able to focus on their own movements and progression rather than
being tempted to lash out at the ball before their hamstrings are fully prepared, with
potentially dire consequences.
John Shepherd MA is a specialist health, sport and fitness writer and a former
international long jumper
References
1. From www.thefa.com
2. Br J Sports Med 2004 Aug; 38(4):493-7
3. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2004 Feb; 14(1):34-8
4. www.ontariosoccerweb.com
5. Am J Sports Med 2004 Jan-Feb; 32(1 Suppl):23S-7S
6. Br J Sports Med 2004 Dec; 38(6):793
7. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004 Jun; 14(3):333-46
8. www.overspeedtraining.com
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Neither I nor PP is being presumptuous in presenting these findings to Sven. Indeed we
would be delighted if the Swede and his team already knew it all and only needed to
worry about the luck factor out in Germany – and those penalties of course!
stretching football
Stretching football: Stretching no help to kicking in football
Static stretching, once an absolute pre-requisite of pre-exercise warm-ups, is
increasingly under attack these days as study after study fails to demonstrate its
efficacy.
The latest blow comes from research carried out on Australian Rules footballers, which
showed no significant changes in either flexibility or kicking variables following a
stretching warmup.
When planning their study, the researchers reasoned that, although static stretching
might be unhelpful prior to strength and power activities, it has been found to be
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effective for increasing range of motion (ROM) at various joints, such as the hip, which
might prove useful for kicking in football.
‘Generally,’ they explain, ‘the greater the distance over which the swinging leg can
move, the greater the potential to achieve a high foot speed at the instant of impact
with the ball. Therefore, if stretching during warm-up can produce a short-term
increase in flexibility, it could potentially enhance the ROM achieved in kicking and, in
turn, increase foot speed at impact.’
Their study was set up to determine the effect of static stretching during warm-up on
hip and knee joint flexibility, ROM at the hip and knee joints and foot speed during
kicking for distance.
The control warm-up consisted of submaximal running and seven kicks of the football
at 50- 100% of maximum effort, while the experimental warm-up included static
stretching of the hip flexors and quadriceps between the submaximal running and
kicking.
Immediately before and after each warm-up, the players were assessed for hip flexor
and quadriceps flexibility by means of a modified Thomas test, using joint angle
calculations in a knee-to-chest position.
After this test, each subject performed six labbased maximum-effort drop punt kicks
with the right foot into a net about 10m away, while being videotaped to determine
the range of motion of the kicking leg and foot speed at impact with the ball.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Sixteen AR footballers performed six maximum effort kicks following two different
warm-ups on two different days, 1-3 days apart.
Key results were as follows:
 There were no significant changes in flexibility as a result of either warm-up;
 There were no significant differences between the warm-ups for any of the
kicking variables.
The findings on flexibility were considered ‘somewhat surprising’, given that static
stretching has been reported to produce significant short-term gains in flexibility in
the plantar flexors and hamstrings.
It is possible, the researchers speculate, that a stretching routine is more effective for
those with ‘tight’ muscles; or that a longer stretching period is needed to produce
results; or that the Thomas test was not sensitive enough to detect changes resulting
from the stretching warm-up.
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However, as they point out: ‘the question of interest is whether or not the warm-ups
differed in their influence on ROM and final foot speed in kicking. The results
indicated no significant differences between the warm-up conditions on any of these
variables, suggesting that stretching had no influence on kicking kinematics.’
They explain that foot speed at impact with the ball is a function of complex
neuromuscular patterns from many other muscles. And they conclude that even if
static stretching does produce short-term changes in flexibility, these ‘may not be
reflected in the kinematics of kicking because of the complexity and multi-factorial
nature of this skill’.
Recovery training: active recovery (light
exercise) is recommended over passive
(resting) recovery for the removal of lactate
Recovery training decreases fatigue, accelerates physiological
regeneration, enhances adaptation and decreases the risk of
injury
Recovery is increasingly recognised as a significant component of athletic training and
performance – particularly for elite performers, who may be expected to engage in
very demanding training two or even three times a day. An adequate recovery is
known to decrease fatigue, accelerate physiological regeneration, enhance adaptation
and (possibly) decrease the risk of injury. So what is the best recovery strategy?
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
J Sci Med Sport 2004; 7:1, pp23-31
Research overwhelmingly supports the superiority of active recovery (light exercise)
over passive (resting) recovery for the removal of lactate – a by-product of strenuous
exercise – from the circulation. However, the relationship of active warm-down with
other measures of recovery – including subsequent performance – remains unclear.
And meanwhile there are newer kids on the recovery block – such as sports massage
and various water therapies. Hot-and-cold (contrast temperature) water immersion, in
particular, is currently being used as a recovery strategy by many athletes and
coaches, although there has been very little research to substantiate its effectiveness.
This is a gap a team of researchers from New Zealand and the UK sought to fill with a
comparison of the impact of active recovery (ACT), passive recovery (PAS) and
contrast temperature water immersion (CTW) on repeated treadmill running
performance, lactate concentration and pH – the latter implicated as a contributor to
metabolic fatigue.
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The study involved 14 highly active male volunteers, who completed the following
testing protocol on three separate occasions: two treadmill runs to exhaustion, at
120% and 90% of peak running speed (PRS), separated by 15 minutes’ rest. On
completion of the second run to exhaustion, participants were exposed to one of the
three recovery strategies for 15 minutes, as follows:
 Active recovery (ACT) – running at 40% PRS on the treadmill;
 Passive recovery (PAS) – standing upright within an 80cm diameter circle;
 Contrast temperature water immersion (CTW) – alternating between 60 seconds
cold and 120 seconds hot water immersion, starting with cold and ending with
hot.
The following findings emerged from comparison of the three recovery strategies:
 the type of recovery used had no significant effect on performance in the
subsequent test protocol. High intensity treadmill running performance had
returned to baseline four hours after the initial exercise bout regardless of
the trial condition used;
 post-exercise blood lactate concentration was lower with Active recovery (ACT)
and contrast temperature water immersion (CTW) than with passive recovery
(PAS);
 blood pH was not significantly influenced by recovery mode;
 participants reported an increased perception of recovery during contrast
temperature water immersion (CTW) compared with active recovery (ACT)
and passive recovery (PAS).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Four hours after the start of the test protocol, participants completed an additional
two treadmill runs to exhaustion, as before. Heart rate, rating of perceived exertion
during recovery, blood lactate and pH were recorded before each test protocol and
during and after each recovery strategy.
‘A novel finding of the present study,’ comment the researchers, ‘is that contrast
temperature water immersion appears to provide similar effects for removing lactate
from the circulation as active recovery.’
What can explain this effect? It is likely, they suggest, that the alternate dilation and
constriction of the blood vessels with hot and cold water immersion boosts blood flow
to the immersed muscles, thereby improving lactate removal.
Why was this beneficial effect on lactate not reflected in improved subsequent
performance? Possibly because the time gap between recovery and performance was
overlong at four hours. ‘The potential remains,’ argue the researchers, ‘that the type
of recovery modality may have influenced performance if the second exercise bout
had been performed closer to the first bout… Further research is required to ascertain
the influence of contrast temperature water immersion on the time course for
recovery of treadmill running performance.’
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They conclude that contrast temperature water immersion (CTW) may be a better
recovery strategy than active recovery for some athletes because similar physiological
changes are achieved, with reduced exertion and increased perceptions of recovery.
J Sci Med Sport 2004;7;1: 1-10
strength football
Strength training for footballers
‘Within this aerobic context a sprint bout occurs about every 90 seconds, each lasting
an average of two to four seconds,’ observe a group of Norwegian researchers. Also
during a game ‘professional soccer players perform about 50 turns, comprising
sustained forceful contractions to maintain balance and control of the ball against
defensive pressure. Hence strength and power share importance with endurance in top
level soccer play. Power is, in turn, heavily dependent on maximal strength.’
Given the lack of data on the relationship between maximal strength and power
performance, such as sprint and jumping capacities, in elite soccer players, the
researchers set out to study this relationship in a team of 17 elite male soccer players
from Rosenborg FC, the most successful team in Norway for the last decade.
The players, all full-time professionals, training on a daily basis, were tested for the
following capacities:
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
With elite male footballers covering 8-12k during a typical game, aerobic capacity is
clearly a strong determinant of performance. But what of other capacities, such as
strength?
 Maximal strength in half squats;
 Sprinting ability (0-30m and 10m shuttle run sprint);
 Vertical jumping height.
Analysis of the findings showed a strong correlation between maximal strength in half
squats and sprint performance and jumping height, with no positional differences
observed among the players.
Interestingly, despite previous evidence of an ‘interference effect’ with concurrent
strength and endurance training, the results in this group of players showed that a
high level of maximal strength did not compromise a high VO2max.
The researchers conclude that maximal strength in half squats determines sprint
performance and jumping height in high level soccer players.
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Given the training regimen employed by the players with a high level of strength in
this team, the researchers recommend elite players to focus on ‘maximal strength
training with emphasis on maximal mobilisation of concentric movements, which may
improve their sprinting and jumping performance’.
Br J Sports Med 2004;38:285-288
The role of stretching in enhancing flexibility and reducing injury risk remains
contentious, with some studies finding no relation between flexibility training and
injury and others pointing to a positively harmful effect. Now, however, a carefully
conducted survey of flexibility training protocols in English professional football clubs
has suggested that stretching helps to prevent hamstring strains – the commonest and
most problematic muscle strains associated with competitive sport.
Questionnaire-based data on flexibility training methods and hamstring strain rates
were collected from 30 football clubs in the four divisions during the 1998/99 season
and analysed for evidence of any relationship between the two.
Key findings were as follows:
 Hamstring strains represented 11% of all injuries and one third of all muscle
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strains;
About 14% of hamstring strains were reinjuries;
Hamstring strain rates were highest in the Premiership and lowest in Division 2;
The vast majority of hamstring strains were minor or moderate, with two thirds
occurring in the late stages of training sessions or matches;
Forwards were injured most often;
Use of the standard stretching protocol (a warm-up session followed by either a
static or PNF stretching technique, holding the static stretch for 15-30
seconds) was the only factor significantly related to hamstring strain rates,
suggesting a protective effect.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
hamstring strains
Hamstring strains
‘Our findings clearly suggest,’ conclude the researchers, ‘that the current stretching
practices of professional footballers are not detrimental, and an improvement in the
quality and consistency of use of more appropriate stretching may possibly further
reduce [hamstring strain rates].
‘Stretching is probably involved in a complex, interactive and multifactorial relation
with hamstring strain. However, stretching may be beneficial only if the technique
employed and the stretch holding times are adequate; the number of repetitions of a
stretch may not be important.
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‘The flexibility training protocols currently used by the professional football clubs
need to be reviewed to ensure consistency in the use of static stretching/PNF with a
stretch holding time of 15-30 seconds.’
Br J Sports Med 2004;38:388-394
football children
Why football is good for children
That is the question a group of researchers from the Canary Islands set out to answer
with a study following 17 prepubertal football players and 11 matched controls over a
three-year period. The football group, mostly recruited from sports clubs, had been
playing football for at least a year and at least three times a week, while the activities
of the controls, recruited from schools, were limited to those included in the
compulsory PE curriculum (two weekly 45-minute sessions).
Bone mineral content and density were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
at the beginning and end of the study, as were body composition and various fitness
variables. Key findings after 3.3 years, when all the participants were still under 13,
were as follows:
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
There is good reason to believe that the more bone mass you accumulate during
childhood, the higher your eventual peak bone mass and the lower your chances of
suffering osteoporotic fractures in later life. Youngsters practising gymnastics and
other highly demanding sports have been shown to accumulate more bone than their
less active peers. But could the same be true for less intense recreational sports – such
as football?
 The football players exhibited greater bone mineral content (BMC) in the legs
and greater bone mineral density (BMD) in all bone-loaded regions at the end
of the study. More specifically, they gained twice as much femoral neck and
intertrochanteric BMC in the legs than the controls and increased their
femoral neck BMD by 10% more and their mean hip BMD by a third more than
the control group;
 Although the footballers’ percentage body fat remained unchanged, it
increased by 11 units in the control group;
 Total lean body mass increased by 6% more in the footballers than in the
controls;
 The footballers attained better results than the controls in a 300m run test and
20m shuttle run test.
‘Our study shows,’ comment the researchers, ‘that just [three hours] of soccer
participation a week elicits a marked osteogenic effect on clinically relevant zones.
This is why we think soccer may be considered as a low-cost and effective option to
improve bone acquisition in growing children.
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‘Soccer participation entails benefits in cardiovascular physical fitness and soft tissue
body composition as it counteracts the socio-cultural tendency to accumulate body fat
and improves lean mass.
‘But the most important finding is that it has … osteogenic effects … which may
facilitate the acquisition of a higher bone mineral peak, which can translate into a
reduction in the risk of bone factures throughout life.’
Med Sci Sports Exerc, vol 36, no 10, pp1789-1795
nutrition for football
That may not be the most scientifically precise instruction a person in my position can
receive, but it is a familiar refrain in many football clubs and it has the value of
letting you know where you stand! Frustrating? Perhaps. But on a broader level, the
role of sports nutritionist in professional football is seen as one of manipulating
carbohydrate, protein, fat, fibre, fluid and micronutrient intake to maintain health,
promote adaptation to training, and ultimately enhance or – in our particular sport –
maintain performance over the course of a season.
The role of the nutritionist in football has evolved over the last five years. Compared
to some practitioners, I am new in the sport (one dietician at a top Premier League
club has been employed continuously for 13 years!), but I am sufficiently long-in-thetooth to have detected significant change over this period. At the time of writing, 19
out of 20 Premier League teams employ someone specifically to take care of the
nutritional requirements of their players. This role is not always performed by a
nutritionist or a dietician: in many teams the responsibility for implementing a
nutritional support strategy falls on the shoulders of the sports scientist, conditioning
coach, or physiotherapist.
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Nutrition for football: 'Your role is to make sure there are no fat
b******s in my team'
Nutrition in football – a brief history
Football was, for a long time, classed as an endurance sport due largely to the fact
that a football match lasted at least 90 minutes. As a result, the nutritional
requirements of football players were extrapolated from early scientific research
carried out in relation to other ‘endurance sports’ such as running and cycling. Yes, it
is true that the duration of a football match is normally 90 minutes; however, the
training loads associated with these sports are vastly different. On closer inspection it
becomes clear that daily energy expenditure of professional football players may not
be particularly high. Football players are generally inactive when not training and
training load will vary, depending on factors such as the stage of the season, or
whether tactical or fitness drills predominate in training.
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Ron Maughan of Loughbrough University assessed the dietary intakes of two Scottish
Premier League teams (he managed to get 51 players to perform seven-day weighed
intakes) and found average daily energy intake to be approximately 2,620kcal and
3,050kcal respectively(1). This is the only published data available on football players
in this country and notwithstanding a recent finding that Japanese football players
under-reported dietary intakes(2), this work does highlight lower energy requirements
than were perhaps originally recommended for professional football players.
Table 1. Energy and macronutrient intakes of élite international football players(3)
Sample
Energy
Nationality
Carbohydrate (%) Fat (%) Protein (%)
Size
(kcal)
Senior
Swedish
15
4,929
47.0
29.2
13.6
Danish
7
3,738
46.3
38.0
15.7
Italian (1)
33
3,066
56.0
28.0
14.0
Italian (2)
20
3,650
55.8
28.3
15.9
Junior
Canadian
5
3,619
48.0
39.0
13.0
Puerto Rican 8
3,952
53.2
32.4
14.4
Total
88
3,682
52.9
30.1
14.5
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If football players were to consume 7-10g of carbohydrate per kg body weight each
day (a recommendation found in many a textbook) then a quick calculation that
included reasonable amounts of protein and fat would generate a daily energy intake
closer to 4,200kcal. In Scandinavia this may be closer to the truth (Table 1). Once the
playing season gets underway the Scandinavian subjects typically train seven times per
week compared with roughly four sessions in this country. So it is not surprising that
energy intakes will exceed 4,000kcal in a country like Sweden.
Not only were early dietary recommendations for professional football players slightly
misjudged; a number of other problems existed in the delivery of nutritional support.
Football was flooded with science and its analytical techniques, and experts employed
by clubs exploited the ‘measure everything’ approach. Blood, saliva, urine, lactate
and expired air were all being indiscriminately extracted from players, often with very
little feedback offered in return. In the world of nutrition and football, science was
calling the shots.
A new climate prevails
‘An athlete’s diet must be high in carbohydrate, moderate in protein, low in fat,
include sufficient vitamins and minerals, and plenty of fluid.’ This was the original
model with which many football nutritionists used to work. Although very simple,
much of it still holds true today. However, as our understanding of the game in this
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country has improved, nutritionists have been able to tease out strategies from each
of the model’s sub-sections that more closely match the requirements of our sport.
What is different is that science no longer holds all the cards. Football has caught up
with science and is now dictating where our efforts are directed.
Good attitudes to reducing fat intake are now commonplace in the modern player.
Emphasis is placed on increasing intake of certain fatty acids that are found to be
lacking in players’ diets. When performing dietary analyses of players, low intakes of
essential fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA; docosahexenoic acid, DHA) are
consistently reported. Despite the appearance of oily fish in the canteens of football
clubs, there may be a case for blanket supplementation in this particular group of
sportsmen.
There is growing evidence that protein supplementation after training can promote
protein synthesis and adaptation of muscle. The type, timing and amount of protein
can be manipulated to enhance the adaptive response. The work of researchers such
as Bob Wolfe and Kevin Tipton in Texas, and Mike Rennie in Dundee (whose primary
interest has been likened to ‘preventing older people falling down’) has enabled us to
design strategies of protein-intake that may promote better adaptation to training.
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For, example, the glycaemic index of foods, a ranking of foods based on their
immediate effect on blood glucose, has become a particularly useful tool in football.
Five years ago the approach in football was to advocate a high carbohydrate, low fat
diet at all times. Any food that at all met these requirements would be recommended
to players in a bid to maximise muscle glycogen storage for training and competition.
Now a more measured approach is employed with the glycaemic index and, to a lesser
extent, the insulin index utilised in a bid to control body composition as well as
carbohydrate provision. Emphasis is now placed more on achieving optimum
carbohydrate intake prior to matches, and during the recovery period after matches,
particularly when some clubs find themselves involved in up to three games per week
in the busiest part of the season.
Interest in micronutrients has historically been associated with the free radical muscle
damage hypothesis. In fact there is now some suspicion that the release of free radical
species associated with exercise is necessary for adaptation of the cell to subsequent
stressful events. It is entirely feasible, although not proven, that free radicals play an
important part in the adaptation of the muscle to hard exercise, and that increased
consumption of some antioxidant nutrients might interfere with these necessary
adaptive responses. Practitioners now warn against the use of mega-dose antioxidants.
Urine indices to the fore
Many indices have been investigated to establish their potential as markers of
hydration status. Body mass changes, blood indices, urine indices and bioelectrical
impedance analysis have been the most widely investigated. Current evidence tends to
favour urine indices, and in particular urine osmolality, as the most promising marker
81
available. Five years ago urine colour charts were commonplace on the walls of clubs’
changing room toilets. Nowadays osmometers can be found at Premier League clubs.
Urine samples provided by players can be analysed in approximately 30 seconds and
the machines quickly identify dehydrated subjects.A recent preliminary report has
suggested that American football players who repeatedly suffer muscle cramping in
training and competition have greater sweat losses and a higher sweat sodium content
than players matched for fitness and other factors but who do not suffer from muscle
cramps(4). Data on sweat electrolyte losses in football players in training are now being
collected in a bid to identify those players at risk of potentially debilitating muscle
cramp.Assessment of body composition plays an important role in nutritional
evaluation, particularly in a sport obsessed with body image. Along with body mass, an
estimation of body fat percentage (or sum of skinfolds) has traditionally been the
requisite regular test demanded by football managers. In addition to the usual body
composition assessment methods, a number of other techniques are being utilised in
the modern game. The evaluation of skeletal muscle mass, in particular appendicular
skeletal muscle, mass can contribute important information to the assessment of
nutritional status because it reflects the body protein mass. A major impediment to
determining muscle mass is the lack of suitable, easy and non-invasive methods for
estimating muscle mass. Lee and others(5) have developed anthropometric prediction
models validated against the ‘gold standard’ method of magnetic resonance imagery
to estimate total body skeletal mass using skinfold thickness and limb circumferences.
These have proved useful in tracking changes in muscle mass associated with inactivity
or resistance training protocols.Although expensive, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry
(DEXA) is proving a valuable tool for body composition assessment, particularly with
injured players recovering from a period of inactivity. If you are lucky enough to have
access to DEXA at a university or hospital, this technology is able to identify accurately
fat and lean tissue and can be used both for whole-body measurements of body
composition and for providing estimates of the composition of specific sub-regions (eg
trunk or legs). The DEXA instruments differentiate body weight into the components of
lean soft tissue, fat soft tissue and bone based on the differential attenuation by
tissues of two levels of X-rays.Indirect calorimetry is used to estimate daily energy
expenditure of individual players, particularly those who are undergoing a period of
inactivity through injury. Measuring the oxygen consumption of an individual and time
spent during different activities allows a picture of energy expenditure to be drawn.
This information can then be used to prescribe eating and drinking plans that match
more precisely players’ energy requirements.These are just a few examples of where
science and football have worked together to develop player- and sport-specific
nutritional support programmes. Science should be committed to meeting the
demands of football and not vice versa. It may sound obvious, but it wasn’t always so.
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The challenge ahead
Despite the progress that has been made in our understanding of the demands of
football, there is a need for continued improvement. No other sub-discipline of sports
medicine comes with so many contrasting views of what is right and wrong. The ‘Zone’
diet, the ‘Atkins’ diet, mass supplementation, the concept of the ‘nutritional guru’ –
all are still prevalent in the modern game. Players are becoming more demanding due
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Back to the fish and chips?
Of course providing a cutting-edge nutritional support programme has no value unless
appropriate education (one that is both stimulating and imaginative) is implemented.
In a world dominated by R’n’B, fast cars and Louis Vuitton washbags, it is important to
pitch your educational material appropriately. ‘Healthy eating’ on its own just does
not wash with Premier League football players. Science and technology, pitched
correctly, most definitely do. For all the advances science has made, the most
important lessons that nutritionists have had to learn are ‘respect the sport’ and
‘know your place’. It is sobering to note that Real Madrid, arguably the world’s best
football team, employ no fewer than nine masseurs but do not employ anyone to take
care of the players’ nutritional requirements.Finally, my personal working title for this
article was ‘The role of fish and chips in modern football’. Five years ago I walked into
a football club and one of the first changes I made was to remove the fish and chips
from the post-match menu. This wasn’t a popular move and it would be dishonest to
say that anything that has been offered to the players since has received anything like
the same enthusiasm. Should I go back to fish and chips?Well, potato is a high
glycaemic index carbohydrate food thought to be preferable for the recovery of
muscle glycogen stores, and fish is a complete protein source possessing essential
amino acids ideal for stimulation of muscle protein synthesis. Most importantly, most
of players will definitely eat this dish. OK, the high fat content will probably interfere
with the glycaemic response of the potato, and, of course, there are other health
promotion implications to wrestle with.In actual fact, I probably won’t return to postmatch fish and chips for the players,however popular this would be, but this real-life
example does highlight the fact that for all the rewards that science and nutrition has
to offer, these can only be achieved if we respect the traditions of the sport and take
the players along with us.
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to conversations with other players from other teams, and also other athletes from
other sports. Players from overseas bring with them their own ideas (nearly always
related to vitamin intake), but very often lacking in scientific support. In addition, at
present there is a fundamental mismatch in what players and practitioners view as
important. Players believe in supplements, extra vitamins and minerals: anything that
involves increasing muscle mass, and reducing energy intake to achieve ‘lean’ body
composition. Scientific research, on the other hand, demonstrates that players should
concentrate more on appropriate energy intake, and high carbohydrate and fluid
intake.Football is steeped in tradition, which many people wrongly write off as
Luddite-type conservatism, or little better than old wives’ tales passed around the old
boys’ network. It is true that many coaches and support staff are employed from
within but it is also true that these people know the sport and its peculiarities better
than anyone. Furthermore, the practice of employment from within will eventually
spawn a new breed of coaches that have had, one hopes, more positive and
enlightened experiences of sports nutrition. There is already evidence of this taking
place.
Nick Broad
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References
1. Br J Sports Med, 31:45-47.
2. J Sports Sci, 20:391-7
3. Int J Sport Nutr, 8:230-240.
4. Med Sci Sports and Exerc, 35:S48
5. Am J Clin Nutr, 72:796-803.
It has always seemed strange that football – in financial terms, the most professional
of sports – is also the least professional in terms of the approach of individual players
to training and other aspects of preparation. Football clubs, as employers and
investors in the players, have also been slow to take advantage of the opportunities to
maximise the return on their expenditure. Nutrition has generally been low on the
priority list, if it has featured at all. Every club expects the players to train, but it
hardly seems worthwhile insisting on this if the opportunities offered by good nutrition
are neglected.
One of the key areas where nutrition can have a direct impact on performance is in
the area of hydration. There is good evidence that players who become dehydrated
are more susceptible to the negative effects of fatigue, including loss of performance
and increased risk of injury. There is also growing evidence that excessive sweat
losses, especially high salt losses, can be a factor in some of the muscle cramps that
affect players in training and competition.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
hydration in football
Hydration football - It used to be oranges in the centre circle...
now it's a personal hydration strategy
Recently, however, a number of clubs have recognised that hydration is important and
that no single strategy suits all players in all environments. This has led to an
assessment of individual needs so that a personal drinking strategy can be put in
place. This practice appears to have gained ground in American football, where preseason training typically takes place in extreme heat and involves two sessions per
day. In recent years, a number of high-profile fatalities, including that of Korey
Stringer in the NFL, have raised the awareness of what can happen when things go
seriously wrong. Several of the top English football clubs now have monitoring
strategies in place.
Zero-cost analysis
At its simplest level, weighing of players before and after training gives an indication
of their level of dehydration and risk of heat illness. This takes account of both the
amount of sweat lost and the amount of fluid drunk and gives the net balance. There
will be a small amount of weight loss due to the fuels used to produce energy (mostly
carbohydrate, with a bit of fat), but this amount is relatively small. There will also be
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water loss from the lungs and loss through the skin. Broadly speaking, a weight loss of
1kg represents a net loss of 1L of body fluid.
All of this is easy to do, and all it requires is a set of kitchen scales to weigh the drinks
bottles, a reliable set of scales to weigh the players, and a bit of organisation. The
cost is effectively nil – just a bit of time and effort on the part of one of the backroom
staff. There is one more measure that can be usefully added, but this needs rather
more specialised apparatus and is thus likely to be the preserve of the top clubs only:
the measurement of salt losses in sweat.
Identifying salty sweaters
There are many ways to measure salt losses in sweat. The one that is most convenient
in practice is to use gauze swabs covered with an adhesive plastic film: typically, four
are applied at different sites before exercise begins and left in place for an hour or so.
After they are removed, the amount of sweat and the amount of salt in the patch can
be measured, allowing the ‘salty sweaters’ to be identified.
We have made these measurements on the first team squads at a number of Europe’s
top teams, typically testing about 20-30 players at each club. They results have been
consistent between clubs when the training sessions have been similar, but the
variability between individual players has been striking. Key findings in a typical 90minute training session are as follows:
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
A slightly better measure is obtained if the player is weighed before and after training
or competition (nude and dry on both occasions) and his (or her) drinks bottle is also
weighed before and after, assuming that all players drink from their own bottles and
that anything that is taken from the bottle is swallowed and not spilled/poured over
the head/spat out. If the decrease in weight of the drinks bottle is added to the
decrease in weight of the player, we get the actual sweat loss. We also get a measure
of the player’s drinking behaviour.
1. Average sweat loss is typically about 2L, but this can vary from about 1L to
over 3L, even though all the players are doing the same training in the same
conditions and are wearing the same amount of clothing.
2. Average fluid intake is typically about 800-1,000ml, but this can vary from
about 250ml to over 2L.
3. There is no relationship between the amount of sweat a player loses and the
amount he drinks.
4. The sweat salt content varies greatly: the better acclimatised players have
lower sweat content, but again there is a large individual difference. Sweat
salt (sodium chloride) losses can reach almost 10g in a single training session in
some players, and this during twice-a-day training. Others lose only small
amounts – 2g or less in the same training session.
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5. When training takes place in the cold, sweat losses may be almost as high as
when training in the heat, but players drink far less and so end up just as
dehydrated – or even more so.
These findings may appear simplistic and predictable – apart from the last one, which
is not intuitively obvious – but they give the training staff of a club which is serious
about maximising its human assets a chance to prescribe fluid according to the
player’s needs. The aim should be not to drink too much, as some players do, but to
drink enough to limit weight loss to no more than 1-2% of the pre-exercise weight.
These simple steps can make a difference between being able to score that vital goal
in the last minute and being a virtual spectator. It is only surprising that it has taken
the world of professional football so long to realise this.
Ron Maughan
football managers
Football managers - Who is there to support the managers? A
psychologist reflects on survival techniques in a cut-throat world
You only have to read the sports pages or listen to the news to learn of yet another
football manager who has got the sack, might get the sack or is in trouble. The world
of the professional football manager is one in which danger and uncertainty about the
future hover over every match the team plays. It is often a lonely and isolated
position, which can leave managers vulnerable to psychological stress.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
There is also a suspicion – and I should stress it is no more than a suspicion at present –
that players with a very high sweat salt content are more prone to cramp and that this
risk can be reduced by salt supplements.
Here, I review the season I spent working with a professional football manager in my
capacity as a sports psychologist. While the manager’s name must remain confidential,
I want to make it clear that I have his full permission to write what follows. The
journey I embarked upon taught me many important lessons about the culture of
football and its impact on the psychological wellbeing of managers. I also learned how
a sports psychologist could support a football manager in what is often hostile
territory.
Initially, I focused on developing an understanding of the manager’s work
environment. I needed to know what demands were being placed upon him and what
their impact was. I discovered that football managers are subject to four main sources
of pressure that influence their psychological wellbeing:
 the players;
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 the club owners;
 the fans;
 the media.
Each of these sources of pressure places different – often conflicting – demands on the
manager, all which have to be satisfied. This creates an intensely pressurised working
environment.








lack of personal security;
isolation;
fear of public humiliation;
lack of control over his own destiny (ie the players ultimately decide his fate);
need to appear strong and in control;
need for quick fixes;
culture of non-sharing;
ego-oriented culture in which everyone is an expert.
These factors need to be fully understood by a sports psychologist if he/she is to work
effectively with a football manager. The culture within football expects the manager
to be strong and in control at all times, with no place for uncertainty or need for
reassurance. Taken in isolation, the above-mentioned factors would be a challenge for
anyone, but in combination their effect can be devastating and it is not surprising that
managers are prone to stress-related illness.
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The overall effect is to create a climate of uncertainty and insecurity for the manager.
The elements of this climate that impact most significantly on his psychological
wellbeing are as follows:
What became apparent to me during the season was the lack of support available for
the manager, who was often working in isolation to solve difficult problems. In theory,
the assistant coach and the management were available to work with the manager,
but in reality the manager was responsible for every decision. The fact that he then
had to justify those decisions to everyone else was an additional source of stress.
A pendulum mindset?
Exploration of the manager’s mindset revealed pendulum-like swings from very
negative to very positive which were completely dependent on the outcomes of
matches. The following quotes illustrate some of the widely-held beliefs within
football that were wholeheartedly embraced by the manager I was working with:




‘When you don’t win people don’t believe in you’;
‘When you are winning you are never wrong’;
‘Players will lose you your job’;
‘You live and die by your decisions’;
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 ‘I am too soft’;
 ‘Results make you God’.
While it has been widely accepted that low self-confidence impacts negatively on an
athlete’s performance, its effects on the performance of managers have been
generally ignored. Furthermore, the consequences are particularly grave for managers:
if the team’s results are poor the owners will still own the club, the players will still
play for it and the fans will still support it, but the manager will be sacked in an effort
to improve the team’s performance. This knife-edge existence leaves managers very
vulnerable.
Off-pitch dynamics
As my season progressed, it became clear that the toughest issues the manager had to
contend with occurred away from the pitch. Examples included players trying to
adjust to life in a foreign country, players facing retirement, players involved in gross
misconduct, marital difficulties and older players intimidating younger ones. While
these issues might appear to have nothing directly to do with the players’ ability to
play the game, it became clear that the manager’s ability to help his players resolve
them did have a direct impact on performance. And it is in these situations that
football expertise, knowledge and ability can’t help you even though they might be
the reasons why you were given the job.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
This mindset indicates a lack of stability and balance. When the team is winning, the
sense that the manager can do no wrong creates a false sense of security and a ‘feel
good’ factor created that is often short-lived. As soon as the team is losing – or even
drawing – his whole coaching methodology is called into question, even though nothing
has changed fundamentally from one game to the next. The net effect of this is to
leave the manager doubting himself and his approach to many aspects of the game. It
is extremely difficult to persist with strategies that you believe to be correct when
everyone around you is telling you, either overtly or covertly, that you are not doing a
good job. And this growing self-doubt soon impacts on the manager’s relationships
with players, with other staff and with the club owners.
It was also clear that these situations impacted in different ways for the team and the
manager. Your perception of any situation will vary considerably, depending on your
role within an organisation. The diagram (right) illustrates a situation in which there
were differing beliefs within the team regarding a decision made by the manager. The
consequence of this was a shift in the team dynamics, causing rifts and a negative
impact on performance. For the coach, the situation generated inner conflict and
uncertainty, which led to a lack of self-belief. The result of this was a change in coach
behaviour to a more autocratic style.
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 First, the confidentiality of the manager had to be assured. The importance of
this principle should not be underestimated, given the culture of football. If
other people had known about the work it could have been compromised, as
could the manager’s position;
 Secondly, it was important that I was not a stakeholder in the club and was
there solely for the manager’s benefit;
 Finally, it was important that I was non-judgmental about – indeed
unconcerned with – the results. Our agenda was focused on the manager’s
response to any given situation, whether on or off the pitch.
These principles were vital to the work we undertook. In his world of constant
insecurity and mistrust, if he had ever doubted me, the work would have been over.
This trust was hard won, but once established it enabled real progress to be made.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
My role as a sports psychologist was to work with the manager to help him find
solutions. However, in order for my work to be effective there were a number of
fundamental principles that defined the working relationship:
What I learned from my experience was that it is vital to really understand the culture
of the game, so that, in a very real sense, you can learn to speak the same language as
those who inhabit the football world. Coming from an essentially non-football
background, I had to work hard to appreciate the context within which the manager’s
job was being undertaken. Sometimes I got it wrong, but through questioning and
acknowledging my own limitations I developed my understanding. Ultimately this
made me more effective in my role. I discovered that it was good to challenge current
practice, but that we had to work through realistic alternatives that would work in
football. My role was to support the manager, not solve player problems.
My work with the manager had three key aims:
 To develop more effective inter-personal communication skills;
 To enhance understanding of group dynamics, and how to affect them;
 Personal stress reduction.
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As the season progressed, the manager was able to use our sessions to tackle difficult
situations he was facing. He was able to discuss openly and freely any concerns or
doubts that he was experiencing in relation to the players, the owners or even the
fans. Consequently, he was being supported, and given the opportunity to develop
strategies to help him manage more effectively.
In summary it is clear to me is that the managers of the future need to develop skills
in inter-personal communication and to have an understanding of group dynamics and
effective group management. They also need to work to develop personal coping and
stress-reduction mechanisms if they are to survive the cut-throat world of football
management.
Misia Gervis
Football referees - Dehydration problems for the men in black
Given the enormous importance of football referees – reflected in the almost universal
tendency for die-hard fans to displace frustrations with the team onto their hapless
shoulders – it is surprising that sports scientists have paid so little attention to their
physical and psychological status and performance.
Now a pair of Brazilian researchers have attempted to redress the balance somewhat
with a study of hydration status in six male refs and six assistants (linesmen) during
matches of the 2000 Paraná football championship, held in Brazil in their autumn
months of March, April and May.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
football referees
Why study hydration status, you might ask? The answer is that negative effects on
performance have been shown with modest degrees of dehydration (2% of body
weight). And it is generally accepted that cognitive performance is also impaired when
dehydration and hyperthermia are present, which could be particularly relevant to the
decision-making aspects of refereeing.
The subjects were weighed without clothes and had blood samples taken before and
after each match, after emptying their bladders. The difference in readings before
and after a match, plus ad lib water intake at half-time and urinary volume, were used
to estimate total body water loss during the match, with the assumption that a body
mass loss of 1kg was equivalent to loss of 1 litre of fluid. The blood tests were
analysed for changes in plasma volume – the fluid portion of the blood.
The key results were as follows:
 Referees lost 1.22kg of body weight during matches, equivalent to 1.55% of
their pre-match weight. Total body water loss averaged 1.60L, equivalent to
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2.05% of their pre-match body weight. The difference between the two
measurements reflects their half-time fluid intake;
 Linesmen, by contrast, lost only 0.48kg (0.63%) of their body weight and body
water loss averaged 0.79L, equivalent to 1.05% of their pre-match body
weight;
 The referees showed a reduction in their plasma volume, while the linesmen
showed no significant changes in haematological status.
‘The physical activity performed by referees is a combination of various types of
exercise (walking, jogging, sprinting and reverse running) covering an average distance
of 9.3 miles in a match,’ they point out. ‘Our results show that this amount of activity
caused significant dehydration which was not redressed by the spontaneous intake of
water during the interval.
‘Additional studies are required to find the best form of fluid replacement for football
referees (during, before and after a match) to prevent a decrease in their physical and
mental performance.’
Br J Sports Med 2003;37:502-506
soccer fitness training
Soccer fitness training: Endurance training boosts performance in
the field
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The researchers conclude that referees are moderately dehydrated after a football
match, whereas their assistants exhibit only a mild, non-significant degree of
dehydration.
Soccer players need a combination of technical, tactical and physical skills in order to
succeed. It is odd, therefore, that Soccer research has tended to focus on technique
and tactics, with little emphasis on how to develop the endurance and speed needed
to become a better player.
In one of the few studies which has explored the link between endurance capacity and
Soccer performance, Hungarian researchers showed that the ranking among the four
best teams in the Hungarian top division was reflected by their players' average
maximal oxygen-uptake (VO2max) values(1). Another investigation found a significant
correlation between VO2max and the distance covered by players during matches, the
number of sprints per match and the frequency of participation in 'decisive
situations'(2).
Some studies have also shown that Soccerers tend to cover less distance and work at
lower intensities during the second half of games than during the first half. The logical
interpretation of these findings is that fatigue is limiting the players and that if they
were fitter they would perform more effectively in the latter stages of their matches.
None the less, until now no investigation has clearly shown that improving aerobic
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capacity and overall fitness boosts performance on the Soccer field.
Aerobic interval training v extra technical training
Players within each team were randomly assigned to either a training group or a
control group, so that each team had members in both groups. In addition to their
regular Soccer training and play (four 90-minute practices and one game per week),
members of the training group performed aerobic interval training twice a week for
eight weeks. Each interval workout consisted of four discrete four-minute work
intervals at 90-95% of maximal heart rate, with three-minute recoveries at 50-60% of
max heart rate. Technical and tactical skills, strength and sprint training were
emphasised in most practice sessions, and about one hour of each practice was
devoted to mock Soccer games. While the training group members carried out their
four-minute intervals, control soccer players engaged in extra technical training,
including heading drills, free kicks and drills related to receiving the ball and changing
direction.
At the beginning and end of the eight-week study period, all players were tested for
VO2max, lactate threshold, vertical jumping height, 40m sprint ability, maximal
kicking velocity and the technical ability to kick a Soccer through defined targets.
After eight weeks of twice-weekly interval training, the players in the training group
had improved VO2max by almost 11%, from 58.1 to 64.3 ml.kg-1.min-1; meanwhile
control group players had not upgraded VO2max at all! Similarly, lactate-threshold
running speed improved by 21% and running economy by 6.7% in the training group,
while controls again failed to improve at all. Clearly the players in the training group
were gaining tremendous physiological benefits from just two aerobic workouts per
week!
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Fortunately, that deficiency has now been remedied, thanks to the work of Jan
Helgerud and his colleagues at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in
Trondheim(3). Their new study involved 19 male players from two Norwegian junior
lite teams - 'Nardo' and 'Strindheim' - all of whom had been playing Soccer for at least
eight years. Both teams had been among the most successful in Norway over the past
five years and six of the participants were members of the Norwegian national junior
team. The players had an average age of 18 and mean mass of 72kg (158lb).
Happily, all of these physiological details translated into some markedly improved
performances on the Soccer field: interval-trained athletes increased the total
distance covered during games by 20% (from 8,619 to 10,335m) and also doubled the
number of times they sprinted during games (a sprint being defined as an all-out run
lasting at least two seconds). Furthermore, after eight weeks of interval training the
number of involvements with the ball per game increased by 24%, from 47 to 59.
(Involvements were defined as situations in which a player was either in physical
contact with the ball or applying direct pressure to an opponent in possession of the
ball.)
Interval training also boosted the athletes' overall ability to play at high intensity;
after eight weeks of interval work, they were able to perform at an average of 85.6%
of max heart rate during their games, compared with just 82.7% beforehand. Training
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group members also spent 19 minutes longer than controls in the high-intensity zone
(ie above 90% of max heart rate) during an actual game.
Of course, interval training isn't a panacea, and sprint speed, squatting strength,
bench-press strength, jumping height, kicking velocity and the technical shooting and
passing test were unchanged by the aerobic work, as you might expect.
No Soccerer can argue that he/she does not have enough time for such additional
training, which should be included in all overall programmes. Interestingly enough, the
VO2max ultimately attained by the interval-trained players (64.3 ml.kg-1.min-1) is
above the average VO2max reported for experienced international Soccerers,
suggesting that a large number of Soccer players could benefit from aerobic training.
Athletes in many other disciplines which are not traditionally viewed as endurance
sports might also benefit from the kind of interval training carried out by the
Norwegian Soccer players. In particular, interval work should offer advantages for
those involved in rugby and basketball.
Recent research carried out at the Victoria University of Technology in Australia
revealed that basketball places huge demands on the cardiovascular system,
suggesting that aerobic capacity improvements might upgrade the quality of play(4).
In this study, eight players (three guards and five forwards or centres) from the
Australian National Basketball League were monitored during league competition and
practice games. Each competition consisted of four 12-minute quarters, with a 15minute break at half time and two-minute breaks between quarters. Maximal aerobic
capacity (VO2max) was determined for each player.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
None the less, this very simple interval training programme (with just two workouts
per week and four 4-minute intervals @ 90-95% of max heart-rate per workout)
produced some dramatic improvements in overall play. Put simply, boosting VO2max,
lactate threshold and running economy with interval routines gave the players an
enhanced ability to cover longer running distances at higher intensities during games
and to be involved with the ball more frequently and thus play a greater role in
deciding the outcomes of competitions.
When the ball was in play, there was a change in movement category (for example,
from medium-intensity shuffling to sprinting) every two seconds, and 'very intense'
activity accounted for almost 30% of court time. This translated into a heavy load on
the players' cardiovascular systems, with heart rate during play averaging 89%
(compared with 86% of max for the interval-trained Norwegian Soccer players and 83%
for the Norwegian controls). Basketball players' heart rates were above 85% of max for
at least 75% of court time. Even more impressively, cardiac beating was in the 95-100%
of max range for 15% of court time and in the 90-95% range for 35% of total time.
During free-throw shooting, heart rates recovered to around 70-75% of max.
Interestingly, blood-lactate levels were also quite high in the basketball players, with
average lactate concentration at 6.8 millimolars (mM)/litre. Somewhat surprisingly,
lactate levels as high as 13 mM/litre were recorded in some of the athletes,
comparable to those seen in top-level sprinters after 400m races. These findings
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suggest that lactate-threshold improvement might benefit basketball players'
performances.
Overall, there were about 105 'high-intensity' efforts per player per basketball game,
and each such exertion (whether it involved fast running or intense side-to-side
shuffling) lasted for about 14 seconds. Thus, a basketball game was a bit like carrying
out an interval workout with 105 14-second reps. Recoveries between repetitions were
short, since intense efforts occurred every 21 seconds.
What other interval workouts besides the Norwegians' 4x4-minute scheme might be
beneficial for Soccer and basketball enthusiasts? Clearly, some of the renowned
French scientist Veronique Billat's 'v VO2max' sessions would be helpful, since they are
very intense in nature and lead to enhancements in VO2max, lactate threshold, and
running economy.
Two of Veronique's workouts should be particularly beneficial:
l The 30-30. To perform this workout, athletes should simply warm up effectively,
then alternate 30 seconds of running at close to max intensity with 30 seconds of easy
ambling. Initially, they should go for 10 reps, but as aerobic capacity improves they
can simply keep going until fatigue kicks in;
l The 3-3. This is like 30-30, except that athletes alternate three minutes of hard
running with three minutes of loping. The pace for the strenuous three-minute
intervals should be determined by the best-possible speed achieved during a sixminute test. (Naturally, 're-tests' of six-minute velocity will be needed every 4-6
weeks-or-so, since running capacity should improve.) Few athletes should try to
complete more than five three-minute intervals per workout.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
As it turned out, the Australian basketball players had average VO2max readings of 61
ml.kg-1.min-1, compared with 64.3 in the interval-trained Soccer players and 59.5 in
the control group. This suggests not only that basketball itself boosts VO2max but also
that improvements in VO2max might foster better play, just as it does in Soccer.
What's the bottom line? In several key ways, Soccer and basketball count as 'endurance
sports', since they place a high demand on the cardiovascular system, and since
performance ability appears to hinge on physiological variables such as VO2max,
lactate threshold and running economy. Thus, performing the types of interval
workouts used by endurance athletes should be helpful to players of both sports.
Owen Anderson
References
Science and Soccer, T Reilly, A Lees, K Davids, and WJ Murphy (Eds). London: E & F N
Spon, 1988, pp 95-107
2. Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Sports Medicine Applied to Soccer,
Rome, 1980, L Vecchiet (Ed) Rome: D Guanillo, 1980, pp 795-801
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training for football and rugby
Football and rugby teams pre-season training
As far as football was concerned, the range of debate was wide, including such areas
as psychological and physical preparation of players, coaching, biomechanics, sports
medicine, match analysis and sociological perspectives. It was very much a multidisciplinary conference, so it's a pity there was so little representation from British
football clubs, who might have learned something. This could be one reason why
British football is starting to lag behind the rest of the world. Other nations appear far
more ready to take on new ideas for the preparation of their players.
At this time of year, most clubs are concerned with the conditioning of players in the
pre-season build-up. In this period players can concentrate on the development of
skills and fitness without the stress of impending competition week in and week out. A
couple of papers at the congress addressed the subject of pre- season conditioning, as
there is little published work on what is the best blend of training to get to the season
in good shape, as well as what fitness improvements can realistically be expected in
this training period.
Probing the Welsh national rugby squad
A study from the Cardiff Institute of Higher Education aimed to examine these fitness
changes through the pre-season period in elite rugby players. The players studied were
from the Welsh national squad, consisting of 18 backs and 21 forwards. A battery of
fitness tests was administered in both June and September of the same year to
examine the change in fitness profiles. The results from the first round of tests were
used to assist prescription of the players' training schedules by looking at their
strengths and weaknesses.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The Third World Congress of Science and Football took place in Cardiff earlier this
year. The congress included not only keynote lectures from authorities throughout the
world but also short communications and poster presentations on scientific aspects of
sport relating to all codes of football. But football wasn't the only sport on the menu-rugby, Aussie Rules, Grid Iron, Gaelic and the fast-growing sport of touch rugby for
women Down Under were all discussed as well.
It was surprising to see that in this conditioning period there was only a small
improvement in the aerobic endurance of the backs, and little change in that of the
forward players. The fitness levels were typical of those expected in good-standard
rugby players. There was, however, improvement in flexibility and the strength
performance of the players, while there was a decrease in explosive leg power, a vital
aspect of performance in the game. It would appear from the data presented that
forwards may need to put more effort into improving aerobic endurance than they
currently do. Although rugby is characterised by short, intense bursts of activity, there
is little doubt that better aerobic endurance would help the players to maintain a
higher work output throughout the duration of a match. It is also important to improve
explosive power during this conditioning period.
...and an English first-division football team
A similar project, carried out by Staffordshire University, examined the effect of a
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Once again, a battery of fitness tests was used to assess the players both before and
after the conditioning period. Over this period there was a significant improvement in
aerobic endurance, as shown by a large increase in performing a progressive shuttle
run to exhaustion. This improvement in endurance performance, a function of the
hard aerobic training undertaken, was also reflected by a significant decrease in body
fat percentage. Although performance of an agility run test also improved during the
conditioning period, there was no improvement in the other fitness parameters
measured, such as anaerobic endurance, flexibility, strength and power. Once again,
these are important parts of match fitness which appear to have been relatively
neglected in the training programme and may need attention in future.
Losing leg strength
Both these papers highlight the danger of inhibited leg power during conditioning
training, supporting the belief that this parameter can be impaired when performing
endurance work. Thus leg strength needs attention, as was pointed out by the eminent
physiologist Jans Pieter Clarys when he noted that improving leg strength often
improves overall performance. Not only is this particularly useful useful after injury,
to help restore the correct balance between opposite muscle groups (such as
quadriceps and hamstrings) but it is also a necessity for other aspects of performance,
such as kicking or injury prevention (particularly when the muscles of posture are
given attention).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
specific pre-season conditioning programme on the fitness levels of 15 senior members
of an English first-division football squad. The programme used was a mixed regime of
cross-country running, fartlek running (mixed pace work), aerobic interval running and
hill running for aerobic benefit, which comprised 80 per cent of the volume; the
remaining 20 per cent involved high-intensity shuttle running and game-specific
conditioning, which is a little more intense. Throughout the pre-season period, a total
of 21 days of actual training was performed, consisting of both morning and afternoon
sessions lasting about one-and-a-half to two hours.
One difficulty for the coach is in deciding which type of strength training to perform
within the overall programme. Thus a comparison between three types of regime was
used to help identify the more suitable method. The options were: using a constant
resistance, where the load remains the same but the speed of movement can vary as
does the muscle length (such as a squat exercise); variable resistance, which was
similar, except the load was varied; and isokinetic work. The last needs specialised
equipment, where the speed of movement is maintained constant throughout the
whole range of movement, which means that the load also varies.
Measurement of the performance of I Repetition Max and isokinetic performance, both
before and after the training programme, revealed that the variable resistance
condition was most effective in the short term. For rehabilitation, however, the
isokinetic condition proved to be most effective as a means of reconditioning the
players in a safe and efficient manner.
Taking in carbo and fluids
Once the season gets underway, the emphasis of the coach tends to shift from longterm conditioning of the players to the maintenance of performance during matches.
Clearly, fitness has an enormous impact here, but the importance of nutrition should
not be forgotten.
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A study from Chichester Institute of Higher Education examined the effects of
administering carbohydrate before and during the game as a supplement. Because of
the high intensity of football for a duration of 90 minutes, it is possible that
maintaining carbohydrate levels throughout a match may help performance in the
later stages of the game.
A similar study was also completed at the same centre, using the simulated match
idea, this time examining the ingestion of fluid--in this case, water-- throughout the
match. In the previous study, the same amount of fluid was consumed in both
conditions; it was just the carbohydrate concentration that varied. Here, the subjects
performed two trials again, one with 8ml of water per kilogram of body mass
(ml/kg/min) before the test and at half time, as well as smaller doses (2ml/kg/min)
every 15 minutes throughout the simulated match. The second trial had no water
ingestion at all in the test period.
Repeated drinking works best
The results showed that body mass was maintained throughout the match in the drink
condition but dropped by 2.3 per cent in the dry condition. In runners, such a drop in
body mass, through fluid loss, has been shown to severely impair performance in
endurance events. Similar drops in performance were also seen in these football
players. Although the maximum speed of the sprints did not vary, the overall distance
covered by the sprints was greater in the second half of the water trial. This shows
that the overall sprinting capacity is maintained by repeated drinking in a simulated
match.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
A simulated football match on a treadmill was set up, whereby subjects had to
perform 30 six-second maximal sprints within a three-minute cycle of walking, jogging
and running in an attempt to replicate the demands of the game. The players
performed this test twice, once with a carbohydrate drink before the 'game' and at
half time, and once with a placebo drink. The results showed that although the blood
glucose level was higher after the carbohydrate drink, there was no significant
difference in the performance variables such as maximal speeds in the match, or
average sprint speed throughout the match.
Players who think they need to worry about drinking only during the warmer summer
months should think again. Data collected from an English Premier League Team by
Leeds Metropolitan University also examined the effects of dehydration on
performance, but this time in actual matches. By carefully measuring the amount of
fluid consumed by players and body mass before and after the matches, it was possible
to calculate the amount of sweat loss during the matches. The average amount of
weight loss during matches was 1.26kg which corresponds to a 1.54 per cent drop in
body mass. However, when one considers the amount of fluid consumed in the same
period, the actual loss is above 2 per cent. Given that these matches occurred during
the winter, the importance of fluid replacement before and during matches is
highlighted. It is particularly essential in the first few games of the season, when the
temperature and sweat loss are likely to be higher.
(Abstracts of these and many other studies will soon be published in the Journal of
Sports Sciences, while full papers of the conference will be published in a book,
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Science and Football III (E. & F.N. Spon.)
Joe Dunbar
Osteoarthritis: hip injuries in footballers
Hip injuries in footballers - osteoarthritis of the hip
Former professional footballers are 10 times more at risk of osteoarthritis of the hip
than age-matched controls, even if they haven’t sustained hip injuries during their
playing careers. That’s the startling conclusion of a new British study.
Of the 68 ex-players, nine (13.24%) reported having OA of the hip, and six of these had
undergone eight total hip replacements. Of the 136 controls, only two (1.47%) showed
radiographic evidence of OA and none had undergone hip replacements.
The most surprising aspect of these findings was that none of the ex-players with OA
of the hip reported having any hip injuries during their playing careers. ‘This’, say the
researchers, ‘is in contrast with OA of the knee, which is associated with previous
knee surgery or injury.’
Why the difference? The researchers speculate that some apparent groin injuries
sustained by footballers are actually repetitive minor hip joint injuries rather than soft
tissue injuries.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The researchers sent a questionnaire designed to assess the prevalence of
osteoarthritis (OA) of various joints to the managers of the 92 league and premiership
football clubs in England and Wales. Of the 74 who responded to the survey, 68 were
ex-professional footballers. The self-reported prevalence of OA of the hip in those
managers was then compared with radiographic evidence of OA of the hip in 136
‘controls’ matched for age and sex.
The prevalence of OA of the hip among ex-professional footballers in this study
confirms the findings of a previous study, but the comparison with non-footballers is a
new development. The researchers recognise that their study has limitations – mainly
the lack of scientific rigour in comparing self-reported OA with radiographicallyidentified disease.
However, the findings are significant enough to point to the need for further studies
comparing radiographic evidence in both groups – and, according to the researchers,
such a study is already under way.
Br J Sports Med 2003;37:80-81
Isabel Walker
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Head injury: research suggests footballers are not at risk
of brain damage
Footballers are not in danger of experiencing brain damage
That’s the encouraging conclusion of a major US study comparing ‘neurocognitive’
function in three groups of students at the University of North Carolina, comprising:
 91 male and female foootballers, with an average of 15 seasons of prior
participation in the sport;
 96 athletes, other than footballers including players of women’s field hockey,
The football players were further divided into two groups: those with and without a
history of concussion.
The researchers were testing the theory that extended exposure to football may be
associated with chronic impairment of brain function, as put forward by some recent
European studies. ‘A unique aspect of the game,’ they point out, ‘is the purposeful
use of the unprotected head for controlling and advancing the ball. Reports of studies
of high-level amateur and professional European footballers suggest that extended
exposure to the game may be associated with chronic cognitive impairment.
‘It is further postulated’, they add, ‘that multiple subconcussive impacts to the head,
such as those involved in repeated heading of the ball, may be responsible for
degenerative impairment of normal brain function. Some authors have even suggested
that repeated heading of the ball in game or practice situations may be comparable in
effect to receiving multiple blows to the head in a boxing match or while
sparring.’Such reports have apparently sent ‘shock waves’ through US youth football
communities, with mandatory use of protective headgear proposed as a possible
solution. Happily, though, these fears seem unfounded – at least as far as college-age
athletes are concerned. For a battery of ‘neuropsychological’ tests, measuring such
capacities as orientation, concentration, problem-solving, verbal association,
attention and memory failed to reveal any significant differences between the
groups.Even a history of concussion did not appear to predispose to mental
impairment, since subjects with a history of two or more concussions were no more
likely to have depressed neurocognitive performance that those with no such history.
When analysis was performed by sex, the only significant difference found on any of
the tests was for the verbal learning test of immediate memory recall. But this was as
significant for the controls as for the footballers.The researchers conclude: ‘Our
results indicate that participation in football is safe, at least up to the collegiate
level, when considering its effect on neurocognitive function. Neither participation in
football nor concussion history was associated with impaired performance of
neurocognitive function in high-level collegiate football players with a mean age of 19
years. Although our findings need to be replicated in other settings, these results
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
women’s lacrosse and men’s baseball;
 53 non-athlete ‘controls’.
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should provide reassurance that exposure to football during youth and adolescence
does not appear to be associated with measurable deficits.’
However, it is clear that football players are at particular risk of concussion, and the
researchers suggest that the focus should now be placed on ways to reduce the risk,
most especially through ‘quality instruction’.
…But the Risk Appears to Increase with Age
The researchers, from Florida University and the State University of New York,
compared performance in four neuropsychological tests (assessing motor speed,
attention, concentration, reaction time and conceptual thinking) in 32 footballers and
29 swimmers. Of the footballers, 26 were college students and six current or former
professionals, with a median age of 41.5; of the swimmers, 29 were students and
seven veterans (median age 42.68).
The researchers were testing two hypotheses:
 that footballers, particularly older ones, would show poorer neuropsychological
test performance than swimmers, who are less likely to sustain sport-related
brain injury;
 that the severity of neuropsychological deficits in footballers would correlate
with the extent of their participation in the sport – ie the length of their
careers and their level of competition.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
That’s the rather less sanguine conclusion of another American study, which found
that footballers performed worse than swimmers on measures of conceptual thinking,
with older football players scoring particularly poorly on reaction time and
concentration, as well as conceptual thinking.
Their results partly supported these hypotheses, although not all the tests revealed
significant differences between the footballers and the swimmers or between old and
young footballers.
‘To our knowledge,’ state the researchers, ‘this is the first study to demonstrate a
dose-response relationship whereby greater football experience is linked to poorer NP
(neuropsychological) test performance, consistent with the hypothesis that playing
football places individuals at risk for NP compromise.’
The fact that this dose-response relationship was even stronger when goalkeepers,
who rarely head the ball, were excluded from the analysis supports the idea that the
deficits detected are caused by football-related head trauma.
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The researchers hasten to point out, though, that there is no clear evidence that such
impairments, as demonstrated on formal testing, lead to practical difficulties in daily
living.
They conclude: ‘The younger groups’ performance leads us to concur with the
assertion that, in the absence of frank concussion, younger footballers are unlikely to
manifest significant NP impairment. However, the potential eventual consequences of
long-continued football participation must be appreciated.’
They suggest that the risks could be minimised by such precautions as using proper
size balls, coaching of correct heading technique, availability of adequate on-site
care, return-to-play guidelines and annual NP screenings for athletes in head-contact
sports.
Fitness for football
Fitness For Football: Endurance training boosts performance in the field
Football players need a combination of technical, tactical and physical skills in order
to succeed. It is odd, therefore, that football research has tended to focus on
technique and tactics, with little emphasis on how to develop the endurance and
speed needed to become a better player.
In one of the few studies which has explored the link between endurance capacity and
football performance, Hungarian researchers showed that the ranking among the four
best teams in the Hungarian top division was reflected by their players' average
maximal oxygen-uptake (VO2max) values(1). Another investigation found a significant
correlation between VO2max and the distance covered by players during matches, the
number of sprints per match and the frequency of participation in 'decisive
situations'(2).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Am J Sports Med 2002 Mar-Apr 30(2), pp157-162 J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2002 Mar
42(1), pp103-107
Some studies have also shown that footballers tend to cover less distance and work at
lower intensities during the second half of games than during the first half. The logical
interpretation of these findings is that fatigue is limiting the players and that if they
were fitter they would perform more effectively in the latter stages of their matches.
None the less, until now no investigation has clearly shown that improving aerobic
capacity and overall fitness boosts performance on the football field.
Fortunately, that deficiency has now been remedied, thanks to the work of Jan
Helgerud and his colleagues at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in
Trondheim(3). Their new study involved 19 male players from two Norwegian junior
lite teams - 'Nardo' and 'Strindheim' - all of whom had been playing football for at least
eight years. Both teams had been among the most successful in Norway over the past
five years and six of the participants were members of the Norwegian national junior
team. The players had an average age of 18 and mean mass of 72kg (158lb).
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At the beginning and end of the eight-week study period, all players were tested for
VO2max, lactate threshold, vertical jumping height, 40m sprint ability, maximal
kicking velocity and the technical ability to kick a football through defined targets.
After eight weeks of twice-weekly interval training, the players in the training group
had improved VO2max by almost 11%, from 58.1 to 64.3 ml.kg-1.min-1; meanwhile
control group players had not upgraded VO2max at all! Similarly, lactate-threshold
running speed improved by 21% and running economy by 6.7% in the training group,
while controls again failed to improve at all. Clearly the players in the training group
were gaining tremendous physiological benefits from just two aerobic workouts per
week!
Happily, all of these physiological details translated into some markedly improved
performances on the football field: interval-trained athletes increased the total
distance covered during games by 20% (from 8,619 to 10,335m) and also doubled the
number of times they sprinted during games (a sprint being defined as an all-out run
lasting at least two seconds). Furthermore, after eight weeks of interval training the
number of involvements with the ball per game increased by 24%, from 47 to 59.
(Involvements were defined as situations in which a player was either in physical
contact with the ball or applying direct pressure to an opponent in possession of the
ball.)
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Aerobic interval training v extra technical training
Players within each team were randomly assigned to either a training group or a
control group, so that each team had members in both groups. In addition to their
regular football training and play (four 90-minute practices and one game per week),
members of the training group performed aerobic interval training twice a week for
eight weeks. Each interval workout consisted of four discrete four-minute work
intervals at 90-95% of maximal heart rate, with three-minute recoveries at 50-60% of
max heart rate. Technical and tactical skills, strength and sprint training were
emphasised in most practice sessions, and about one hour of each practice was
devoted to mock football games. While the training group members carried out their
four-minute intervals, control soccer players engaged in extra technical training,
including heading drills, free kicks and drills related to receiving the ball and changing
direction.
Interval training also boosted the athletes' overall ability to play at high intensity;
after eight weeks of interval work, they were able to perform at an average of 85.6%
of max heart rate during their games, compared with just 82.7% beforehand. Training
group members also spent 19 minutes longer than controls in the high-intensity zone
(ie above 90% of max heart rate) during an actual game.
Of course, interval training isn't a panacea, and sprint speed, squatting strength,
bench-press strength, jumping height, kicking velocity and the technical shooting and
passing test were unchanged by the aerobic work, as you might expect.
None the less, this very simple interval training programme (with just two workouts
per week and four 4-minute intervals @ 90-95% of max heart-rate per workout)
produced some dramatic improvements in overall play. Put simply, boosting VO2max,
lactate threshold and running economy with interval routines gave the players an
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enhanced ability to cover longer running distances at higher intensities during games
and to be involved with the ball more frequently and thus play a greater role in
deciding the outcomes of competitions.
No footballer can argue that he/she does not have enough time for such additional
training, which should be included in all overall programmes. Interestingly enough, the
VO2max ultimately attained by the interval-trained players (64.3 ml.kg-1.min-1) is
above the average VO2max reported for experienced international footballers,
suggesting that a large number of football players could benefit from aerobic training.
Athletes in many other disciplines which are not traditionally viewed as endurance
sports might also benefit from the kind of interval training carried out by the
Norwegian football players. In particular, interval work should offer advantages for
those involved in rugby and basketball.
Recent research carried out at the Victoria University of Technology in Australia
revealed that basketball places huge demands on the cardiovascular system,
suggesting that aerobic capacity improvements might upgrade the quality of play(4).
In this study, eight players (three guards and five forwards or centres) from the
Australian National Basketball League were monitored during league competition and
practice games. Each competition consisted of four 12-minute quarters, with a 15minute break at half time and two-minute breaks between quarters. Maximal aerobic
capacity (VO2max) was determined for each player.
When the ball was in play, there was a change in movement category (for example,
from medium-intensity shuffling to sprinting) every two seconds, and 'very intense'
activity accounted for almost 30% of court time. This translated into a heavy load on
the players' cardiovascular systems, with heart rate during play averaging 89%
(compared with 86% of max for the interval-trained Norwegian football players and
83% for the Norwegian controls). Basketball players' heart rates were above 85% of
max for at least 75% of court time. Even more impressively, cardiac beating was in the
95-100% of max range for 15% of court time and in the 90-95% range for 35% of total
time. During free-throw shooting, heart rates recovered to around 70-75% of max.
Interestingly, blood-lactate levels were also quite high in the basketball players, with
average lactate concentration at 6.8 millimolars (mM)/litre. Somewhat surprisingly,
lactate levels as high as 13 mM/litre were recorded in some of the athletes,
comparable to those seen in top-level sprinters after 400m races. These findings
suggest that lactate-threshold improvement might benefit basketball players'
performances.
Overall, there were about 105 'high-intensity' efforts per player per basketball game,
and each such exertion (whether it involved fast running or intense side-to-side
shuffling) lasted for about 14 seconds. Thus, a basketball game was a bit like carrying
out an interval workout with 105 14-second reps. Recoveries between repetitions were
short, since intense efforts occurred every 21 seconds.
As it turned out, the Australian basketball players had average VO2max readings of 61
ml.kg-1.min-1, compared with 64.3 in the interval-trained football players and 59.5 in
the control group. This suggests not only that basketball itself boosts VO2max but also
that improvements in VO2max might foster better play, just as it does in football.
What other interval workouts besides the Norwegians' 4x4-minute scheme might be
beneficial for football and basketball enthusiasts? Clearly, some of the renowned
French scientist Veronique Billat's 'v VO2max' sessions would be helpful, since they are
very intense in nature and lead to enhancements in VO2max, lactate threshold, and
running economy.
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Owen Anderson
References
Science and Football, T Reilly, A Lees, K Davids, and WJ Murphy (Eds). London: E & F N
Spon, 1988, pp 95-107
2. Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Sports Medicine Applied to
Football, Rome, 1980, L Vecchiet (Ed) Rome: D Guanillo, 1980, pp 795-801
3. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol 33(11), pp 1925-1931, 2001
4. Running Research News, vol 12-3, pp 11-12, 1996
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Two of Veronique's workouts should be particularly beneficial:
l The 30-30. To perform this workout, athletes should simply warm up effectively, then
alternate 30 seconds of running at close to max intensity with 30 seconds of easy
ambling. Initially, they should go for 10 reps, but as aerobic capacity improves they
can simply keep going until fatigue kicks in;
l The 3-3. This is like 30-30, except that athletes alternate three minutes of hard
running with three minutes of loping. The pace for the strenuous three-minute
intervals should be determined by the best-possible speed achieved during a sixminute test. (Naturally, 're-tests' of six-minute velocity will be needed every 4-6
weeks-or-so, since running capacity should improve.) Few athletes should try to
complete more than five three-minute intervals per workout.
What's the bottom line? In several key ways, football and basketball count as
'endurance sports', since they place a high demand on the cardiovascular system, and
since performance ability appears to hinge on physiological variables such as VO2max,
lactate threshold and running economy. Thus, performing the types of interval
workouts used by endurance athletes should be helpful to players of both sports.
Football training: how to take a penalty kick
How to win the penalty shoot-out mind game
The classic mind game of soccer penalty-taking begins when the referee points to the
spot. Anticipation, strong nerve, cool head, firm resolve - all these factors come into
play in a brief but highly intense drama. Will the keeper second-guess the striker? Will
the kick - as happens surprisingly frequently - fly high over the goal?
Science has now come to the aid of goalies with research which may help them to stay
calm. It seems that in the split second before the striker hits the ball, the orientation
of his or her hips indicates which way the ball will fly. The results were presented at
the second Asian Congress on Science and Football in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Mark Williams, head of science and football at Liverpool John Moores University,
explained: 'If the taker's hips are square-on to the goalkeeper in a right-footed kicker,
the penalty tends to go the right-hand side of the keeper. If his hips are more 'open',
the kick tends to go the left.'
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His study investigated saving strategies by showing goalkeepers life-sized video
footage of strikers before and during penalties. He stopped the film four times: 120
milliseconds before the kick; 40 milliseconds before; at the point of impact; and 40
milliseconds afterwards. Each time, he asked the keepers to predict the outcome.
Semi-professionals were consistently better than unskilled amateurs at guessing which
of four target spots in the goal the ball would hit. At 120 milliseconds before impact,
half the semi-pros guessed correctly. The success rate rose to 62 per cent 40
milliseconds before, and 82 per cent at impact. At each stage, the amateurs lagged
ten percentage points behind the semi-pros.
The question is, will this information make things harder for strikers, or will it
introduce a new dimension to the mind game as strikers try even harder to disguise
their intentions?
How nutrition can help soccer players overcome the second-half
slump
New research suggests soccer players need better nutrition
Although soccer is the most popular sport in the world, with over 120 million amateur
players worldwide, scientific research concerning the nutritional needs of soccer
players has been scant. Fortunately, new investigations are being conducted, and the
up-to-date research suggests that soccer players should eat and drink like marathon
runners!
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Williams reported that other visual cues include angle of the striker's run-up and the
orientation of the non-kicking foot. Ian Franks and Todd Harvey at the University of
British Columbia identified this latter factor as the crucial cue in a study of 138
penalties in World Cup competitions between 1982 and 1994. The non-kicking foot
pointed to where the ball would go 80 per cent of the time.
The link between soccer players and long-distance endurance athletes seems odd at
first glance, since soccer is a game involving sudden sprints and bursts of energy rather
than continuous moderate-intensity running, but the connection doesn't seem so
extraordinary when one considers what happens during an actual soccer match. In a
typical contest, soccer players run for a total of 10-11 kilometres at fairly modest
speed, sprint for about 800-1200 metres, accelerate 40-60 different times, and change
direction every five seconds or so.Although soccer players don't cover a full marathon
distance (42 kilometres) during a game, the alternating fast and slow running which
they utilize can easily deplete their leg-muscle glycogen stores. For example, just six
seconds of all-out sprinting can trim muscle glycogen by 15 per cent, and only 30
seconds of upscale running can reduce glycogen concentrations by 30 per cent! The
high average intensity of soccer play (studies show that topnotch players spend over
two-thirds of a typical match at 85 per cent of maximal heart rate) accelerates
glycogen depletion. Plus, the time duration of a soccer match, 90 minutes, is more
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They're half-starved!
Unfortunately, many soccer players don't seem to be aware of the importance of
dietary carbohydrate. Studies show that large numbers of players eat only 1200
calories of carbohydrate per day, far below the optimal level of 2400-3000
carbohydrate calories. As a result, many players BEGIN their competitions with
glycogen levels which are sub-par. Players who start a match with low glycogen usually
have little carbohydrate left in their muscles by the time the second half starts.That
leads to bad performances during the second half. Glycogen-poor soccer players
usually run more slowly - sometimes by as much as 50 percent - during the second
halves of matches, compared to the first. In addition, total distance covered during
the second half is often reduced by 25 per cent or more in players who have low
glycogen, indicating that overall quality of play deteriorates as glycogen levels head
south. Compared to competitors with normal glycogen, low-glycogen players spend
more time walking and less time sprinting as play proceeds.That's why taking in
carbohydrate DURING competition can pay big dividends. In recent research carried
out with an English soccer team, players consumed a glucose-containing sports drink
during 10 of their matches but swallowed only an artificially flavoured, coloured-water
placebo during 10 other competitions. When the players used the glucose drink, the
team allowed fewer goals and scored significantly more times, especially in the second
half. When the placebo was ingested, players were less active and reduced their
contacts with the ball by 20-50 per cent during the final 30 minutes of their games. A
separate study showed that swilling a glucose solution before games and at half-times
led to a 30-per cent increase in the amount of distance covered at high speed during
the second half of a match.However, just sipping a sports drink at random before
matches and at half-time probably won't do much good, because soccer players must
be sure they take in ENOUGH carbohydrate to really make a difference to their
muscles. An excellent strategy is to drink about 12-14 ounces of sports drink, which
usually provides about 30 grams of carbohydrate, 10-15 minutes before a match
begins. The same amount should be consumed at half-time, although players may
rebel at both intake patterns because of perceptions of stomach fullness. The
important thing to remember is that through experience - trying out these drinking
strategies on several different occasions during practices - the intake plans will
gradually become comfortable and they will help reduce the risk of carbohydrate
depletion.
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than enough to empty leg muscles of most of their glycogen. In fact, research has
shown that soccer players sometimes deplete 90 per cent of their muscle glycogen
during a match, more than enough to heighten fatigue and dramatically reduce
running speeds.
Tapering is important, too
Soccer players should also eat a small meal containing at least 600 calories of
carbohydrate about two hours before competition. 600 calories is the approximate
amount of carbohydrate in three bananas and four slices of bread (eaten
together).Players should also try to 'taper' for a few days before matches, reducing
their intensity and quantity of training in order to avoid carbohydrate depletion.
During the taper and during all periods of heavy training, soccer players should
attempt to ingest 9-10 grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight ( 16-18
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calories per pound of body weight) each day. 'Grazing' - eating two to four daily highcarbohydrate snacks in addition to three regular meals - can help players carry out this
high-carbo plan successfully.However, carbohydrate is not the only nutritional concern
for soccer players.Fluid intake is also critically important. Various studies have shown
that soccer players lose - through their sweat glands - from two to five litres of fluid
per game. Even the lower figure could raise heart rate and body temperature during a
match and might reduce running performance by about 4-5 per cent for a typical
player. Fortunately, the sports-drink-intake plan described above - coupled with sips
of sports drink during injury time-outs - can help to reduce the impact of
dehydration.Although water and carbohydrate must be taken onboard, soccer players
don't need to worry about replacing electrolytes during play. Sweat is a dilute fluid
with low concentrations of electrolytes, and most players can obtain enough
electrolytes - including salt - from their normal diets.However, the presence of salt in
a sports drink can enhance the absorption of water and glucose. Most commercial
drinks have about the right concentration of sodium; if you're making your own
beverage, you should be sure to mix about one-third tea spoon of salt and five to six
tablespoons of sugar with each quart of water that you're going to be using. After all
matches, players should attempt to ingest enough carbohydrate-containing sports
drink to replace all the fluid they've lost during competition. After strenuous
workouts, water should also be replaced, and soccer athletes need to eat at least 500
calories of carbohydrate during the two hours following practice in order to maximize
their rates of glycogen storage.('Carbohydrate, Fluid, and Electrolyte Requirements of
the Soccer Player: A Review,' International Journal of Sport Nutrition, vol. 4, pp. 221236,1994)
Owen Anderson
The eyes: soccer
The Eyes: Soccer: What makes a topnotch football player
different from a mediocre performer? One key difference is in
the way their eyes move, according to researchers at the
University of Liverpool and the University of Manchester.
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High-quality players survey the field of play for clues about what their opponents will
try to do in a manner which varies strikingly from the visual search patterns used by
less-experienced performers.To find out exactly how soccer players become skilled at
anticipating events on the field, the English scientists studied 15 experienced and 15
inexperienced male soccer players. The experienced athletes had 13 years of playing
experience and had played an average of 640 competitive matches, while the
inexperienced subjects had played for five years in an average of 73 matches. The
experienced players included eight college first-team players and seven professionals;
college third-team and recreational players comprised the inexperienced contingent.
All 30 players watched test films containing 26 soccer action sequences, selected from
a sample of college and professional soccer matches. The games had been filmed from
a position behind and above the goal, which allowed the entire field of play to be
viewed on film. As the players watched the matches, their eye movements were
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captured with a special recorder. As a pattern of play developed, a black square
highlighted a player on the viewing screen; when the ball was passed to this player,
the subjects had to verbalise as quickly as possible the player to whom the next pass
would go.
Analysis of the athletes' reactions demonstrated that the experienced players were far
better at anticipating final-pass destinations and made significantly quicker responses,
compared to their less-experienced counterparts. How were they able to do it? The
eye-movement recorder showed that the experienced players conducted a more
extensive visual search of the field of play as they watched the match. For one thing,
they shifted their gaze from one part of the field to another about 25-per cent more
often than their inexperienced peers.
Experienced players were also better at discerning relevant portions of the field of
play. While inexperienced players fixated on the ball and the player actually passing
the ball, experienced players focused on peripheral aspects of play, such as the
movements of other players not in close contact with the ball - players who were
moving into open areas of the field in which they might eventually receive a strategic
pass.
The Liverpool-Manchester scientists recommended that football coaches show game
films to their players while stopping the film frequently in order to highlight important
'off-ball' movements. As players learn to stop ball watching' and develop a knack for
determining where everyone on the field is going, they will learn to anticipate play
development. Then their only task will be to learn to make the right decision about
how to stop or assist the ensuing attack on the goal.
('Visual Search Strategies in Experienced and Inexperienced Soccer Players,' Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 65(2), pp. 127-135, 1994)
Speed parachutes
Speed Parachutes: Displaying their bold maize and blue colors,
the chutes billow out behind runners during workouts, attached
by cords to the athletes' chests.
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As long as there are no gale-force winds, chute-users don't become airborne; in fact,
their running velocities slow considerably because of the increased air resistance
created by the chute. It's a bit like running uphill, except that instead of working
against gravity you're fighting against the air hitting the inside of your trailing
parachute.But is it really a good idea to use a speed chute during training? Chute
proponents claim that the device strengthens leg muscles and leads to more powerful
performances, especially over competitive distances of one mile or less. Even chute
critics have to admit that the contraption does provide 'specific' training, which is
always a hallmark of wise workouts. After all, you do run when you're wearing the
chute, and running well is your ultimate goal. In that regard, chute use is a better form
of resistance training than, say, lifting a weight with the leg muscles while the body is
in a standing or sitting position.
However, it's easy to criticize the chutes, too. Let's face it: once you have a chute
strapped to your chest, you are definitely going to run more slowly during training,
compared to running chuteless. As we all know, training more lethargically is
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definitely not the way to become a better runner, so in this regard, chute training
looks stupid.
Realistically, though, you don't have to use the chute every day. Even if you became a
chute fanatic, you could still do your regular high-speed work on days when the chute
remains in your gym bag. Plus, recent research with the weight vest, another device
which, like the speed chute, slows running speeds but increases the stress on leg
muscles, found that such training could produce unexpected gains in running prowess.
Although speed chutes have been extolled in various advertisements, no chute
research has been published in scientific journals, so runners have been basically
clueless about the colorful contrivances. Fortunately, that's all changed now, thanks to
the untiring efforts of Matthew Taylor, an exercise physiologist who now works in the
Human Performance Laboratory at the William Beaumont Army Medical Center in El
Paso, Texas.
While at St. Cloud State University in Minnesota, Taylor began working with 14 school
sprinters, aged 15-18. All of the athletes trained four times per week for a period of
six weeks, but only half of the runners actually worked out with the speed chute.Two
days per week, the groups trained in a very similar manner, using workouts which
emphasized stretching, sprint drills, plyometrics, stair climbing, hurdle jumps, table
jumps, quick-feet drills on a 'Port-A-Pit', lateral hops, full-court basketball, high-knee
drills, and butt flicks. Speed chutes weren't used on these days.
On the other two training days, the speed-chute group completed sprint intervals using
a speed chute while the other athletes ran similar sprint intervals without the chute.
During early stages of the six-week training period, the speed-chute runners
completed 200-metre intervals in a very interesting manner; they ran the first 100
metres of the interval with the chute attached but then released the chute at the 100metre mark and ran unencumbered over the last half of the interval. Average time per
200 meters was about 26-28 seconds. The no-chute group ran the same 200-metre
intervals without chutes, and their times were also in the 26-28 second range. This
meant that chute-group members were actually working harder during the interval
workouts, since they covered the 200-metre distance in the same time needed by the
chuteless athletes, but against increased air resistance.
Toward the end of the six-week period, the intervals were shortened and speeded up,
especially for the chuteless runners. After a 10-metre flying start, chute-group
athletes ran 50-metre intervals in about 6.5 seconds each, with chutes attached for
the whole interval. Meanwhile, after the same running start, chute-free athletes ran
50-metre intervals in six seconds (a pace of 24 seconds per 200 metres), with no
chutes to tire their leg muscles. Thus, near the end of the study, the no-chute runners
were actually running a little faster during their workouts, compared to the speedchute trainers. During an average workout, about eight of these 50-metre intervals
would be completed per session, with 45-60 seconds of rest between efforts.
Improvements? After six weeks of training, speed-chute runners improved their 55metre race times by an average of .23 seconds, from 6.26 to 6.03 seconds, a pretty
respectable improvement. However, the no-chute trainers fared just as well, lowering
55-metre clockings by .22 seconds from 6.12 to 5.90 seconds. In other words, use of
the speed chute provided no special benefits during training; sprint performances
improved just as much in the runners who abstained from speed chutes altogether.
The bottom line? Using a speed chute does no harm, as long as the overall quality of
training is kept high. However, performance problems may arise if the chute
consistently reduces running speeds during interval training. On the positive side,
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speed-chute use is fun and provides an interesting break from routine training.
However, there's still no solid evidence that the utilization of speed chutes will
heighten sprint performances, compared to conventional training.
'Effects of Speed Chute Training on Sprint Performance,'Medicine and Science in Sports
and Exercise, vol. 26(5), Supplement, p. S 64, 1994
Soccer Refs
compete at the highest level, footballers must be supremely fit. But the next time you
are sitting in front of the TV, marvelling at the athleticism of the players, spare a
thought for the ref, who has to make split-second decisions while keeping up with the
increasingly fast run of play. How hard do these refs actually work? Keen to answer
this question, The Italian Football Federation carried out an extensive four-year study
examining the work rate profile of their own high-level soccer referees.
More than 30 referees enrolled in the Serie A and B Italian championships took part in
the study. Each referee was observed between one and six times for a total of 96
matches, using sophisticated video analysis equipment. The key results were as
follows:
1. the referees stood still for 14.6% of the total time played;
2. the total distance covered over an entire match was 11,469m;
3. this distance was covered in a variety of runs (forward, backward, sideways) and at
various intensities from walking to high intensity (18.1-24k/h) and maximal intensity
(24k/h) runs.
You may still not be too impressed, but remember that football referees are not
professionals and hold down quite separate full time jobs. Despite this and the fact
that they are usually older than the players they officiate over, they are still expected
to keep up with the run of play no matter what the tempo.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Top flight soccer refs cover 11k-plus per match, says new studyTo
The Italians concluded that refereeing top-flight matches is a demanding activity,
which is predominantly aerobic, although the anaerobic system plays an important role
at certain times. As the players get fitter so must their refs; it's a tough job but
somebody has to do it!
The Journal Of Strength and Conditioning Research 15 (2) 167-171
Nick Grantham
Training dietary regimes
Training Dietary Regimes: You can lead a footballer to a proper
diet, but can you make him eat it?
While the average distance covered by a top-class outfield player during a 90-minute
match is over 10,000m, at an average speed of over 7km per hour, these figures do not
accurately represent the full demands placed on a player. In addition to running, a
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The keeper
The specific demands of the different positions within a team are not as clearly
defined as in some other team sports, such as rugby union. The obvious exception to
this is, of course, the goalkeeper. A keeper relies little on the aerobic system for
energy production since all the important phases of play for him last a relatively short
time. The key performance quality of the keeper is probably agility, and this can be
broken down further to include speed, power, strength and flexibility. If he happens to
be tall, it's clearly an added bonus!
Popular training programmes for keepers include repetitions of short sprints performed
at maximal speed, with many changes of direction involved. Obviously, an element of
skill can be built into this training by having to save a bombardment of shots at goal.
This way, another important constituent of training is then automatically introduced,
namely, the ability to regain one's feet in order to save a follow-up shot at goal.
However, to gain the edge in physical development, the keeper should also train away
from the pitch so that upper and lower body strength and power can be improved in
the weights room. In addition, plyometric training lends itself perfectly to improving
the qualities necessary for agility around the goal mouth. Plyometric training does
need to be conducted correctly (see, for instance, PP 42, March 1994) which includes
the provision of generous rest periods between sets of exercises, but if done so can
produce some significant improvements in the ability to move one's own body weight
at speed
Outfield players
As far as the rest of a soccer team goes, the differing demands are less obvious.
However, a systematic analysis of soccer matches on video has shown that midfield
players tend to cover the most distance, and other studies have - not surprisingly shown these players to have the highest VO2max scores, and to show the least fatigue
when performing many repeated sprints in succession. Compared to forwards and
defenders, midfield players tend to have a more continuous involvement in the game.
However, while forwards and defenders usually have more time to recover between
sprints, they also need to perform those sprints at a faster speed to be successful in
their crucial phases of play
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
player must jump, change direction, tackle, accelerate and decelerate, etc, and each
of these individual tasks requires an energy input over and above that required simply
to cover a similar distance at a constant speed. Scientific investigation has shown that
the true demands on a player can be approximated at roughly 70%VO2max. This is
based on evidence of heart rate, sweat loss, increase in body temperature, and
depletion of carbohydrate stores within the muscles (intramuscular glycogen)
Implications for training should become apparent. Clearly, the midfield players need
more of an all-round fitness profile, with an emphasis on both aerobic and anaerobic
capacity. Aerobic capacity relates to sustained performance (20-40 minutes), or
performance during lengthy repetitions, each of 2-3 minutes in duration. Anaerobic
capacity can be related to performance of a repeated nature, but with work/rest
intervals of equal length, and not over 30 seconds.
The players regularly involved in attacking/ defending situations will need more
training emphasis on speed. Speed training can itself be broken down into at least two
phases - an acceleration component and a maximal speed component. For
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Match-play
Moving away from training methods for a moment but continuing the analysis of the
physical demands of the game, there is an interesting form of player behaviour that
playing experience seems to encourage. It is a phenomenon that many players will
recognise as common without perhaps understanding why. The behaviour in question is
the avoidance of prolonged high-intensity activity that would require a corresponding
long period of recovery - which can rarely be afforded in a competitive situation.
For instance, if a defender is involved in high-intensity activity as he assists in an
attacking phase of play, he often will not attempt to return to his defending position
in time for the immediate counter-attack. While this might be perceived as laziness, it
may benefit both the individual player and the team in the longer term, providing the
rest of the team has sufficient cover to deal with the counter-attack.
Sound physiological reasoning provides the basis for this. It has been shown that short
periods of intense exercise (eg, less than 15 seconds), when interspersed with rest
periods of similar duration, produce a fairly low build-up of lactic acid in the muscles
(a strong indicator of fatigue) even when this activity pattern is continued for some
time. However, periods of intense exercise of about 30 seconds or more, even when
accompanied by equal rest periods of 30 seconds (such that the work:rest ratio is till
1:1 as in the previous example), produce a far higher concentration of lactic acid in
the muscles and also greater fatigue
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
improvements in acceleration, repeated sprints of not less than six seconds in
duration, performed from a standing or walking start, will be useful in training. This
will help develop the neuromuscular function of the athletes. For development of
maximal speed, a gentle increase in speed to about 85 per cent followed by a
sustained burst at maximum speed for about six seconds will produce more specific
improvements. This will help develop both the metabolic and neuromuscular qualities
of the muscles involved. Put simply, to improve acceleration, accelerate as fast as
possible in training. To improve maximal speed, the length of time spent running at
current maximal speed during training should be increased. A relatively gentle
acceleration phase before a sustained burst can best achieve this.
If the coach can accomplish these sorts of training goals by using drills which involve
ball skills, then the players will become used to performing the skills under conditions
of fatigue. As many will appreciate, it is under conditions of fatigue and mental
pressure such as a competitive match that skills often become lost - unless they are
both well-drilled for their own sake and practised under simulated conditions of
fatigue
This situation is exactly what the experienced player is trying to avoid when he
decides to return more slowly to his main position on the pitch. However, this
obviously requires a large degree of teamwork, with team-mates prepared to cover for
the defender concerned. If a team can achieve this sort of cooperation, it helps
reduce player fatigue and increases performance capacity throughout the match as a
whole. Clearly the role of the coach is paramount in organising this sort of team
approach in spreading the workload, especially with inexperienced players. Indeed,
some younger players may be almost too enthusiastic for the good of their own and
the team's subsequent performance
Nutrition
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As already mentioned, the physical demands of the game are sufficiently high so as to
require a high rate of energy production. Whatever the sport, this can only be done by
the breakdown of carbohydrates, and soccer is no exception. This means that players
should pay particular attention to this aspect of their diet - more especially when
considering the notorious practices of soccer players when they are given no guidance
about what to eat. The heavy training/match schedule that the British game involves
only serves to increase the need for carbohydrate intake
The work carried out some years ago by Jacobs and colleagues ('Muscle glycogen and
diet in elite soccer players', European Journal of Applied Physiology, 1982, vol. 48,
pp297-302) illustrates the potential pitfalls of a low-carbohydrate diet. These
researchers studied players in the Malmo soccer team in Sweden - the side had
finished as runners-up in the European Cup the previous season. The players consumed
just 47 per cent of dietary energy as carbohydrates - well below the recommended
values. Muscle glycogen stores were assessed immediately after a national league
match (Day 1), and again 24 hours later after no training (Day 2), and 48 hours after
the match after a very light training session (Day 3)
Normal muscle glycogen stores of the general population are approximately 70-90
mmol.kg-1 wet weight. The average values for the Malmo team were 46, 69 and 73
mmol.kg-1 wet weight on the three days.
There is no reason why the players could not have refilled their muscle glycogen stores
to pre-match levels within 24 hours if they had consumed a high-carbohydrate diet.
Experiments have shown that, for highly trained athletes, a muscle glycogen level of
well over 100 mmol.kg-1 wet weight is quite possible to achieve following two or three
days of light training. The reason the soccer players didn't reach this sort of level was
undoubtedly due to the lack of carbohydrate in their diet.
The importance of high muscle glycogen stores for performance in events lasting
longer than 60 minutes has been demonstrated by numerous researchers. Specifically
in relation to soccer, the diets (and hence the muscle glycogen stores) of players
involved in an exhibition match have been manipulated, with those players having
higher muscle glycogen stores before the match also covering a greater distance at a
faster pace during the match. This effect was particularly noticeable towards the end
of the match when glycogen always become lowered - and many goals are often scored
as the game tends to open up. So a high-carbohydrate diet leads to increased muscle
glycogen stores, which in turn leads to a greater distance covered during the final
stages of the match, which in turn leads to your team scoring the winning goal in
injury time! Well, not always, maybe, but you can increase the chances of it
happening by taking a close look at players' diets
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
When discussing this subject, it is usual to express the form of the energy consumed as
percentages (proportions) eaten as carbohydrate, fat and protein. While the typical
diet for the general British population is about 40% carbohydrate, 45% fat and 15%
protein, the recommended dietary proportions for a soccer player would be roughly
65% carbohydrate, 20% fat and 15% protein. However, the typical diet of the soccer
player is actually very similar to that of the general population - too little
carbohydrate and too much fat
Alun Williams
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muscle building
Muscle building: Squats, leg press or knee extensions - which exercise is best for
the quads?
The squat and the leg press are considered to be a different type of exercise from the
knee extension. The squat and the leg press are known as closed kinetic chain
exercises (CKC), whereas the knee extension is considered an open chain kinetic
exercise (OKC). CKC exercises are distinguished by the foot being fixed and the knee
joint moving in conjunction with the hip and ankle in a predictable manner. With the
squat, for example, the foot is on the floor. and ankle, knee and hip all flex and then
extend in sync. OKC exercises, on the other hand, are distinguished by the foot being
free to move and the knee joint working independently of any other joints. With the
knee extension, the hip joint is fixed and the knee flexes and extends with the foot
freely rotating. (Recently, researchers have argued that this classification system of
exercises is too simplistic, but for the purposes of this article, the simple distinction is
sufficient.)
What the researchers say
Researchers and physiotherapists seem to be agreed that CKC exercises are superior to
OKC ones. CKC knee exercises are considered safer and more effective since they
place less strain on the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and elicit a hamstrings cocontraction together with the quadriceps. Researchers from the Mayo Clinic (New
York) showed that leg press placed no strain on the ACL and elicited significant
hamstring co-contraction, whereas the knee extension placed strain on the ACL at 30°
of flexion. The decreased ACL strain makes CKC knee exercises important for ACL
rehabilitation programmes.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Training the quadriceps muscles is an integral part of most sports strength
programmes. The quadriceps are important for cycling, swimming, running, jumping,
sprinting, throwing - in fact, virtually every full-body athletic movement. Three of the
most common quadriceps exercises are the squat, the leg press and the knee
extension. But although all three exercises target the quads, they all vary in terms of
knee joint forces, muscle activity and functionality. There are even variations within
an exercise through changes in technique or equipment.
The Mayo Clinic team also argue that CKC exercises are superior because they are
more functional than OKC exercises. Walking, jumping and running movements all
involve the kinetic chain of ankle, knee and hip. Thus it is advantageous to strengthen
the quadriceps in a similar manner to real movements - specificity of training is an
accepted principle in sports science. During the squat and leg press, the knee and hip
extend together. While the knee extends, the rectus femoris shortens and the
hamstrings lengthen, but while the hip extends, the rectus femoris lengthens and the
hamstrings shorten. The result is a simultaneous concentric and eccentric contraction
at the opposite ends of each muscle. This is known as the 'concurrent shift', and is a
specific neuromuscular pattern which occurs during all multi-joint leg movements.
This concurrent shift does not take place in OKC exercises. Theoretically, training the
quadriceps in isolation, without normal muscular recruitment patterns, could lead to
inefficient neuromuscular coordination in athletic movements. Training movements
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that involve the concurrent shift are very important, so CKC knee exercises are
recommended.
More support the squat
Kevin Wilk and a team from the American Sports Medicine Institute investigated the
EMG activity of the quadriceps and hamstrings during the squat, leg press and knee
extension. They also used experienced lifters and determined the 12-repetition
maximum weight for each exercise. Like Signorile, they found that the squat produced
the most quadriceps activity, peaking at 60 per cent of maximum activity levels. The
leg press produced slightly less, peaking at 52 per cent, with the knee extension less
still, peaking at 46 per cent.
Wilk's team also investigated the knee joint forces during the exercises. They
confirmed the Mayo Clinic findings regarding ACL strain forces. The CKC exercises, the
leg press and squat, placed no strain on the ACL, whereas below 40° of flexion the
knee extension did place a strain on the ACL. However, the leg press and squat did
place a strain on the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), and should therefore be
avoided by PCL injury patients. The leg press and squat also produced significantly
greater knee compression forces than the knee extension, with the squat producing
the highest. Compression force refers to the vertical force between the surfaces of the
femur and tibia, and excessive compressive forces can cause knee injury.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Other studies have compared the muscle electromyographic (EMG) activity during the
squat, leg press and knee extension exercises. EMG activity is an objective measure of
the amount of muscle activity during the exercise. This allows exercises to be
compared. Joseph Signorile and a team from the University of Miami investigated the
EMG activity of the quadriceps during the squat and knee extension. They used
experienced lifters and determined the 10-repetition maximum weight for each
exercise. This guaranteed that both exercises required the same relative effort. The
team found that the squat elicited significantly more quadriceps EMG activity
compared to the knee extension. Signorile et al concluded that because of this the
squat should be seen as the superior quadriceps exercise, especially as it is a more
functional movement.
Wilk et al also found that the squat was the only exercise of the three to elicit a
significant hamstring co-contraction. During the squat, the hamstring activity peaked
at 36 per cent of maximum compared with the leg press and knee extension in which
hamstring activity peaked at 12 and 13 per cent respectively. This finding contradicts
the Mayo Clinic research which showed a hamstring co-contraction during the leg
press. This suggests that just because the leg press is a CKC exercise, it does not
guarantee that there will be significant hamstring co-contraction. Other factors, such
as body position and angle of force application, affect whether CKC exercises elicit cocontraction of the hamstrings, and are therefore functional to other movements.
The athlete's position is important
In a recent review paper, Wilk and his team summarised findings from research into
co-contraction of hamstrings during leg press and squat exercises. The most important
factor seems to be the technique used or body position of the athlete when
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performing the exercise. For example, with the squat performed normally with a bar
across the back of the shoulders, as the knee and hip flex, the trunk leans forward. At
the bottom of the lowering phase, the bar is positioned in front of the hips. This
means that, as well as the quadriceps working to extend the knee, the hamstrings
must work to extend the trunk back upright.
With a lying leg-press machine, the body position changes once again. The feet are
placed above the hips and so the weight is in front of the hips. Thus, when the leg
extends, the hamstrings must work to extend the hip along with the quadriceps which
are working to extend the knee. So with the lying leg press there is hamstring cocontraction as with the squat. This is the type of leg press the Mayo team used in their
study, which showed leg-press hamstrings activity.
Changes in squat technique can reduce the hamstrings co-contraction - for instance,
by placing one's back against a support. This change will isolate the quadriceps since
the trunk is supported and the hamstrings do not have to work to keep it upright.
Other studies have shown that wide-stance squats produce more hamstrings and
gluteal activity, and narrow-stance squats more quadriceps activity. Again, changes in
technique result in different patterns of muscle activity.
From the research discussed above, we can draw some conclusions about the efficacy
of the three quadriceps exercises.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
By contrast, with the seated leg press, the athlete sits with the body fixed upright and
the footplate is level with the hips. Thus when the legs extend, the quadriceps work to
extend the knee but the hamstrings need not work, because the trunk is fixed and the
weight is in line with the hips. This biomechanical difference explains why Wilk found
co-contraction with the squat and not with the leg press.
1. The squat
This is probably the best exercise for the quadriceps. Studies have shown that the
squat elicits the highest quadriceps EMG activity compared to the leg press and the
knee extension. This means that the squat works the quadriceps the hardest. In
addition, the squat is a CKC multi-joint exercise which elicits co-contraction of the
hamstrings. Researchers have argued that this makes the exercise functional to
athletic movements and therefore a sports-specific strength exercise. The cocontraction of the hamstrings means that the squat trains the 'concurrent shift'
pattern, which is very important biomechanically. The squat is also safe for ACL
patients, although it is not safe for PCL patients.
Variations such as narrowing the stance will concentrate activity on the quadriceps,
while widening the stance will allow more gluteal and hamstrings activity. Leaning
against a back support will isolate the quadriceps.
The major disadvantage of the squat is that it results in the highest knee-joint
compression forces of all the exercises. This may cause problems for those with weak
knees because of the extra pressure on the surfaces of the femur and tibia. For this
reason, a correct squatting technique is vital to safety. Athletes also need to be strong
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in the low back and abdominals, because the squat works the low-back muscles hard
and a high intra-abdominal pressure is required to support the spine. For heavy
squatting, the athlete will need a training partner or a squat frame to train safely.
I conclude from the evidence that the squat is a very effective and sports-specific
quadriceps strengthening exercise. However, it is probably best for well-conditioned
athletes only.
The major disadvantage of the leg press is that it is not necessarily functional simply
because it is a CKC multi-joint exercise. Wilk showed that with the seated leg press
there was no hamstrings co-contraction. This means the concurrent shift pattern is not
trained as it is with the squat. However, hamstring co-contraction is possible with a
lying leg-press position with the feet placed higher than the hips. The lying leg press
would be a good sport-specific exercise, just like the squat, only a little safer and
easier.
The complication with the lying leg press is that the feet should not be placed too
high. Ideally, they should be placed so that they are above the hip but level with the
knee when the knee is fully extended. In this position, both the quadriceps and the
hamstrings will work. If the feet are too high, the knee can go below them, which
means the quadriceps stop working.
I conclude that the lying leg press, with the feet placed correctly, is a good
alternative to the squat., potentially not quite as effective but safe and easy to use,
making it more suitable for weight-training beginners. The seated leg press with feet
low is not as good because it lacks the functional relevance.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
2. Leg press
This is a good quadriceps exercise. Wilk's research showed that the quadriceps activity
was lower than with the squat, but the knee compressive forces are not quite as high.
The leg press is also safe from a technique viewpoint as the machine is easy to use.
Thus the leg press can be seen as a safer, easy alternative to the squat.
3. Knee extension
This is shown by research to be the least effective of the three exercises, as it elicits
the lowest quadriceps activity. In addition, because it is an OKC single-joint
movement, it has no functional relevance for most athletic movements.
The advantage of the knee extension is that compression forces are lower than with
the CKC exercises. And, although the knee extension places a strain on the ACL, the
level of strain is safe for a healthy knee. The knee extension is therefore a safe
quadriceps exercise for athletes without ACL problems, but the fact that it works the
quadriceps in isolation makes it much less effective than other exercises. If variation
in strength exercises is required, then dumbbell lunges, barbell step ups, and singleleg squats are much better choices since they are CKC multi-joint movements. The
only athletic movement the knee extension is functional for is kicking, which requires
a powerful isolated quadriceps contraction.
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I conclude that the knee extension exercise is the least effective and least functional
of the three. However, it is safe (for non-ACL patients) and would be useful for
football and rugby players to improve kicking power.
Raphael Brandon
Useful Links
common knee injuries, knee injuries symptoms, runners knee, iliotibial band syndrome (ITBS),
knee injuries treatments
aerobic energy system | football
Just to remind you, there are three major systems available for the production of
energy in the muscles: the ATP-PC system for high-intensity short bursts; the
anaerobic glycolysis system for intermediate bursts of relatively high intensity (this
system produces the by-products of lactate ions and hydrogen ions, commonly known
as lactic acid); and finally, there is the aerobic system for long efforts of low to
moderate intensity.
With sporting events such as cycling, swimming and running, where the intensity is
constant for the duration of the event, it is possible to estimate the relative
contribution of each energy system. For example, the energy for the 100m sprint is
split 50 per cent from the ATP-PC system and 50 per cent from the anaerobic
glycolysis sytem, whereas the marathon relies entirely on the aerobic system
(Newsholme et al, 1992). By contrast, games such as football are characterized by
variations in intensity. Short sprints are interspersed with periods of jogging, walking,
moderate-paced running and standing still. This kind of activity has been termed
'maximal intermittent exercise'.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Football: What are the energy demands in this "maximal
intermittent exercise"?
It would seem reasonable to assume that during a football game all three energy
systems would be required, as intensity varies from low to very high. However,
because it is not obvious just how fast, how many and how long the sprints are, and
just how easy and how long the intervening periods are, it is difficult to determine
which of the energy systems are most important. Thus most of the football-related
research has attempted to tackle this problem.
A 15m sprint every 90 seconds
English researchers Reilly and Thomas (1976) investigated the patterns of football play
in the old first division. They found that a player would change activity every 5-6 secs,
and on average he would sprint for 15m every 90 seconds. They found the total
distance covered varied from 8 to 11 km for an outfield player - 25 per cent of the
distance was covered walking, 37 per cent jogging, 20 per cent running below top
speed, 11 per cent sprinting and 7 per cent running backwards. Ohashi and colleagues,
researching football in Japan, confirmed these findings, showing 70 per cent of the
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The pattern of football play has also been expressed in terms of time. Hungarian
researcher Peter Apor and the Japanese researchers both describe football as
comprising sprints of 3-5 secs interspersed with rest periods of jogging and walking of
30-90 secs. Therefore, the high to low intensity activity ratio is between 1:10 to 1:20
with respect to time. The aerobic system will be contributing most when the players'
activity is low to moderate, ie, when they are walking, jogging and running below
maximum. Conversely, the ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis systems will contribute
during high-intensity periods. These two systems can create energy at a high rate and
so are used when intensity is high.
The above research has described the average patterns of play during football and
from this we can reasonably deduce when each of the energy systems is contributing
most. However, now we need to establish just how important each energy system is
for footballing success.
Recovering from high-intensity bursts
There is evidence that the aerobic system is extremely important for football. Along
with the fact that players can cover over 10 km in a match, Reilly found heart rate to
average 157 bpm. This is the equivalent of operating at 75 per cent of your VO2max
for 90 minutes, showing that aerobic contributions are significant. This is confirmed by
the fact that various studies have shown footballers to have VO2max scores of 55-65
ml/kg/min. These VO2max scores represent moderately high aerobic power. Reilly and
Thomas (1976) showed that there was a high correlation between a player's VO2max
and the distance covered in a game. This was supported by Smaros (1980) who also
showed that VO2max correlated highly with the number of sprints attempted in a
game. These two findings show that a high level of aerobic fitness is very beneficial to
a footballer.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
distance was covered at low to moderate pace below 4 m/s, with the remaining 30 per
cent covered by running or sprinting at above 4 m/s. Thus, for example, if a football
player covers 10 km in total, around 3 km will be done at fast pace, of which probably
around 1 km will be done at top speed.
The greater the player's aerobic power the quicker he can recover from the highintensity bursts. These short bursts will be fuelled by the ATP-PC and anaerobic
glycolysis systems. Then, during rest periods, a large blood flow is required to replace
the used-up phosphate and oxygen stores in the muscles and to help remove any
lactate and hydrogen ion by-products. The quicker this is achieved, the sooner a
player can repeat the high-intensity sprints, and thus cover more distance and be able
to attempt more sprints. So the aerobic system is crucial for fuelling the low to
moderate activities during the game, and as a means of recovery between highintensity bursts.
Which system fuels the sprints?
As already mentioned, the ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis systems fuel the highintensity periods. However, if we are to optimize training programmes, we need to
know whether in performing the high-intensity bursts both systems contribute evenly
or whether one is more important.
As the sprints a player makes are mostly 10-25m in length, or 3-5 secs in duration,
119
some researchers have assumed that the ATP-PC system will be the most important.
However, since football has an intermittent intensity pattern, just because the sprints
are brief does not mean that anaerobic glycolysis does not occur; research has shown
that anaerobic glycolysis will begin within 3 seconds.
To determine whether anaerobic glycolysis is significant during football, researchers
have analysed blood lactates during matchplay. However, results from these studies
have varied. Tumilty and colleagues from Australia cite research varying from 2
mmol/l, which is a low lactate score indicating little anaerobic glycolysis, to 12
mmol/l, which is quite a high score. Most studies seem to find values in the 4-8
mmol/l range, which suggests that anaerobic glycolysis has a role.
The contrast in results is probably due to the varying levels of football in the different
studies. Some use college-level players, others professionals. Some studies test
training games, others competitive matches. This is likely to confound results. Ekblom,
a researcher from Sweden, clearly showed that the level of play was crucial to the
lactate levels found. Division One players showed lactate levels of 8-10 mmol/l
progressively down to Division Four players showing only 4 mmol/l. Tumilty and
colleagues conclude that the contribution of anaerobic glycolysis remains unclear, but
is probably significant. They suggest that the tempo of the game may be crucial to
whether anaerobic glycolysis is significant or not. As Ekblom noted: 'It seems that the
main difference between players of different quality is not the distance covered
during the game but the percentage of overall fast-speed distance during the game
and the absolute values of maximal speed play during the game'.
The conclusion from these lactate studies is that, as the playing standard increases, so
may the contribution of anaerobic glycolysis. However, I think more precise research is
needed to determine exactly how fast and how frequent the high-intensity efforts
during play are. Maximum-intensity bursts with long recoveries will emphasis the ATPPC system, whereas high-intensity but not maximal bursts occurring more frequently
will emphasise the anaerobic glycolysis system more. Thus, along with the standard,
the style of play and football culture may also influence the physiological demands.
This means that the country in which the researchers are based may affect the
conclusions they draw when studying the relative contributions of the two systems.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
SOCCER ARTICALS
What action to take
From the research completed so far, it would probably be fair to conclude that for the
high-intensity bursts during play both the anaerobic glycolysis and the ATP-PC systems
contribute, but that the ATP-PC system is more important. This is because the ratio of
high-intensity to low-intensity activity is between 1:10 and 1:20 by time. The highintensity periods are very short and the rest periods relatively long. Therefore, the
ATP-PC system will probably be more useful and also has sufficient time to recover.
Research has also shown that lactate values become moderately high but not so high
as to indicate that the anaerobic glycolysis system is working extremely hard.
Indirectly, this is confirmed by Smaros who showed that glycogen depletion was mostly
in the slow-twitch muscle fibres, which suggests that glycogen is being used for the
aerobic system but not the anaerobic system. However, the possibility exists that for
professional-standard football, or football played at a high tempo, anaerobic glycolysis
will be at least as significant as ATP-PC.
If coaches of professional teams want to know better which system is more important,
then more research taking place in their own country and using top players as subjects
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A specific type of interval training for footballers would be to mimic the demands of
an actual game with the correct work-to-rest ratios and distances covered. If players
sprint for over 1 km during a game with high to low ratios of 3-5 secs to 30-90 secs,
then a session such as two sets of 20 x 25m maximal sprints with 30 secs rest (2 mins
between sets), would represent the demands of a tough match, namely, frequently
repeatable high power. To focus solely on the ATP-PC system, short maximal sprints of
20-60m with 1-2 mins recovery are best. To train the anaerobic glycolysis system,
longer sprints of 15-30 secs, with 45-90 secs recovery, are recommended. Aerobic
training involves running continuously, fartleks, long repetitions (eg, 6 x 800m, 1 min
rest) or extensive intervals at moderate speeds (eg, 30 x 200m, 30 secs rest). Trainers
should be aware that running sessions, intervals and shuttle runs (or doggies) should be
carefully planned so that they target the correct energy system. Running speeds,
distances and rest periods should be calculated so that the session will target the
specific energy system the coach wants to develop.
Raphael Brandon
soccer exercise | aerobic system
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
is needed, accurately analysing intensity patterns in matchplay and measuring lactate
levels. Until then, training regimes must cater for all three systems, with particular
attention to the aerobic and ATP-PC systems. Japanese researchers performed a
Maximal Intermittent Exercise (MIE) test on footballers which consisted of 20 x 5 secs
maximum efforts with 30 secs active rest. This was meant to mimic a high-intensity
section of the game. They correlated the performance on this test with fitness tests
representing the three energy systems, VO2max for the aerobic system, lactic power
for the anaerobic glycolysis system, and maximum power for the ATP-PC system. All
three components of fitness were significant to the performance on the MIE test. Peter
Apor agrees with this in making fitness recommendations for footballers, saying that a
good aerobic fitness needs to be linked to a moderate anaerobic glycolysis power and
a high ATP-PC power.
Soccer exercise energy demands
Just to remind you, there are three major systems available for the production of
energy in the muscles: the ATP-PC system for high-intensity short bursts; the
anaerobic glycolysis system for intermediate bursts of quite high intensity (this system
produces the by-products of lactate ions and hydrogen ions, commonly known as lactic
acid); and finally, there is the aerobic system for long efforts of low to moderate
intensity.
With sporting events such as cycling, swimming and running, where the intensity is
constant for the duration of the event, it is possible to estimate the relative
contribution of each energy system. For example, the energy for the 100m sprint is
split 50 per cent from the ATP-PC system and 50 per cent from the anaerobic
glycolysis sytem, whereas the marathon relies entirely on the aerobic system
(Newsholme et al, 1992). In contrast, games such as soccer are characterized by
variations in intensity. Short sprints are interspersed with periods of jogging, walking,
moderate-paced running and standing still. This kind of activity has been termed
121
SOCCER ARTICALS
'maximal intermittent exercise'.
A 15m sprint every 90 seconds
English researchers Reilly and Thomas (1976) investigated the patterns of soccer play in
the old first division. They discovered that a player would change activity every 5-6
secs, and on average he would sprint for 15m every 90 seconds. They found the total
distance covered varied from 8 to 11 km for an outfield player - 25 per cent of the
distance was covered walking, 37 per cent jogging, 20 per cent running below top
speed, 11 per cent sprinting and 7 per cent running backwards. Ohashi and colleagues,
researching soccer in Japan, confirmed these findings, showing 70 per cent of the
distance was covered at low to moderate pace below 4 m/s, with the remaining 30 per
cent covered by running or sprinting at above 4 m/s. Thus, for example, if a soccer
player covers 10 km in total, around 3 km will be done at fast pace, of which probably
around 1 km will be done at top speed.
The pattern of soccer play has also been expressed in terms of time. Hungarian
researcher Peter Apor and the Japanese researchers both describe soccer as
comprising sprints of 3-5 secs interspersed with rest periods of jogging and walking of
30-90 secs. So, the high to low intensity activity ratio is between 1:10 to 1:20 with
respect to time. The aerobic system will be contributing most when the players'
activity is low to moderate, ie, when they are walking, jogging and running below
maximum. Conversely, the ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis systems will contribute
during high-intensity periods. These two systems can create energy at a high rate and
so are used when intensity is high.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
It would seem reasonable to assume that during a soccer game all three energy systems
would be used, as intensity varies from low to very high. However, because it is not
obvious just how fast, how many and how long the sprints are, and just how easy and
how long the intervening periods are, it is difficult to determine which of the energy
systems are most important. Thus most of the soccer-related research has attempted
to tackle this problem.
The above research has described the average patterns of play during soccer and from
this we can calculate when each of the energy systems is contributing most. However,
now we need to establish just how important each energy system is for soccer success.
Recovering from high-intensity bursts
There is evidence that the aerobic system is very important for soccer. Along with the
fact that players can cover over 10 km in a match, Reilly found heart rate to average
157 bpm. This is the equivalent of operating at 75 per cent of your VO2max for 90
minutes, showing that aerobic contributions are significant. This is confirmed by the
fact that various studies have shown soccer players to have VO2max scores of 55-65
ml/kg/min. These VO2max scores represent moderately high aerobic power. Reilly and
Thomas (1976) showed that there was a high correlation between a player's VO2max
and the distance covered in a game. This was supported by Smaros (1980) who also
showed that VO2max correlated highly with the number of sprints attempted in a
game. These two findings show that a high level of aerobic fitness is very beneficial to
a soccer player.
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SOCCER ARTICALS
The greater the player's aerobic power the quicker he can recover from the highintensity bursts. These short bursts will be fuelled by the ATP-PC and anaerobic
glycolysis systems. Then, during rest periods, a large blood flow is required to replace
the used-up phosphate and oxygen stores in the muscles and to help remove any
lactate and hydrogen ion by-products. The faster this is achieved, the sooner a player
can repeat the high-intensity sprints, and thus cover more distance and be able to
attempt more sprints. So the aerobic system is crucial for fuelling the low to moderate
activities during the game, and as a means of recovery between high-intensity bursts.
As the sprints a player makes are mostly 10-25m in length, or 3-5 secs in duration,
some researchers have assumed that the ATP-PC system will be the most important.
But since soccer has an intermittent intensity pattern, just because the sprints are
brief does not mean that anaerobic glycolysis does not occur; research has shown that
anaerobic glycolysis will begin within 3 seconds.
To determine whether anaerobic glycolysis is significant during soccer, researchers
have analysed blood lactates during matchplay. But results from these studies have
varied. Tumilty and colleagues from Australia cite research varying from 2 mmol/l,
which is a low lactate score indicating little anaerobic glycolysis, to 12 mmol/l, which
is quite a high score. Most studies seem to find values in the 4-8 mmol/l range, which
suggests that anaerobic glycolysis has a role.
The contrast in results is probably due to the varying levels of soccer in the different
studies. Some use college-level players, others professionals. Some studies test
training games, others competitive matches. This is likely to confound results. Ekblom,
a researcher from Sweden, clearly showed that the level of play was crucial to the
lactate levels found. Division One players showed lactate levels of 8-10 mmol/l
progressively down to Division Four players showing only 4 mmol/l. Tumilty and
colleagues conclude that the contribution of anaerobic glycolysis remains unclear, but
is probably significant. They suggest that the tempo of the game may be vital to
whether anaerobic glycolysis is significant or not. As Ekblom noted: 'It seems that the
main difference between players of different quality is not the distance covered
during the game but the percentage of overall fast-speed distance during the game
and the absolute values of maximal speed play during the game'.
The conclusion from these lactate studies is that, as the playing standard increases, so
might the contribution of anaerobic glycolysis. However, I think more precise research
is needed to determine exactly how fast and how frequent the high-intensity efforts
during play are. Maximum-intensity bursts with long recoveries will emphasis the ATPPC system, whereas high-intensity but not maximal bursts occurring more frequently
will emphasise the anaerobic glycolysis system more. Thus, along with the standard,
the style of play and soccer culture may also influence the physiological demands. This
means that the country in which the researchers are based may affect the conclusions
they draw when studying the relative contributions of the two systems.
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Which system fuels the sprints?
As already mentioned, the ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis systems fuel the highintensity periods. But if we are to optimize training programmes, we need to know
whether in performing the high-intensity bursts both systems contribute evenly or
whether one is more important.
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What action
Football coaching: Ball kicking
Football coaching: a new measure of kicking accuracy
Frustrated by the limitations of existing methods for assessing kicking accuracy –
clearly a vital component of soccer performance – a research team from Minnesota in
the US set out to develop and test a sensitive, reliable and valid means of measuring
kicking accuracy that was relatively inexpensive, simple to make and easy to use.
The result of their endeavours was a plywood target 243.5cm wide and 122cm high,
held in an upright position from behind by a wood plank frame. The surface of the
plywood was covered with a textured white paint, while a black mark measuring 5cm
squared (the bull’s-eye) was placed at the midpoint of the base of the board. A screw
was placed in the middle of the bull’s-eye in such a way that a hook at the end of a
tape measure could fit over the head of the screw with a view to precisely measuring
the distance from the bull’s-eye to the centre of the mark left where the ball struck
the target.
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How should a soccer coach measure the kicking accuracy of his forwards and strikers?
Number of shots on goal? Okay, but that favours players in positions that shoot more
frequently. Number of goals per game? That can be influenced by all sorts of other
factors, including skill of the opposing goalie and the defence in general, conditions of
the pitch and (of course) the weather. Ability to strike a specified target? Better, but
still relatively insensitive as a measure because it doesn’t factor in the magnitude of
error when the target is missed, or even which area of the target is struck.
Sheets of white paper covered by carbon paper were placed over the board, such that
when the soccer ball struck it left a mark on the underlying white paper. For each new
kick a new sheet of paper-plus-carbon was used.
To test the accuracy of the system, 10 ball marks were created on the target by
having a subject kick a football at it 10 times from a distance of 6.1m. Two ‘raters’
then independently measured the distance from the bull’s-eye to the centre of each
ball mark, each taking the marks in a different random order. They then repeated
their measurement on the same day, taking the marks in a different random order.
Analysis of the results showed a high degree of inter- and intra-rater reliability in
measurement, with distances from the bull’s-eye to the ball mark (ranging from
25.7cm to 150.75cm) accurate to within 0.15cm.
‘These results suggest that our method for assessing kicking accuracy is a useful, valid
and reliable tool for analysing performance in soccer players,’ state the researchers.
‘To our knowledge, no other tool has demonstrated reliability…Measurements were
made to within 0.15cm, suggesting that the target is sensitive to change in kicking
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accuracy. Such targets may also be useful in sports other than soccer, such as lacrosse,
ice hockey, field hockey and …handball.’
This particular device was tested indoors in a gym. But the researchers point out that
game situations could be simulated more accurately by using defenders or a goalie
against the player kicking at the target, placing it on a playing field – although not in
rain or extreme wind – and/or making it larger to replicate the size of an actual goal
(244x732.5cm).
Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 5(4):348-353
Isabel Walker
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Training and research are the two main applications of the target, they conclude. The
bull’s-eye could be moved to different places on the target, allowing players to
practise kicking to specific spots. Each player’s accuracy could be determined for each
spot, and regions to which the player does not kick accurately could become a primary
focus of training. The target could then be used to measure improvements in accuracy
over time.
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Genetics
Stereotypes about Ethiopian distance runners being born to win are well known, but is
athletic prowess really based on genetic traits? Can a super athlete parent guarantee the
same in a child? Were the Finnish born to consistently medal in the javelin throw? Read
on to find out answers to these and more… To browse our library of free sports training
articles, browse using the categories on the left or use the search box
Metabolic rate basically refers to the energy that is released by the body.
Sports training can have a significant effect on metabolic rate – this can determine weight
gain and weight loss. This is because it boosts calorie burning. This is a result of 1) doing
the activity itself 2) the effects of a process known as ‘excess post oxygen consumption’
(EPOC) – of which more later – and 3) by creating a body whose constituent parts
(specifically muscle) create an all day and every day increased calorie requirement (again
of which more later).
Metabolic rate is comprised of:
Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE)
This refers to all the energy we expend over a day
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
60-75% of TDEE is used to maintain RMR. RMR includes all those ‘behind the scenes’
essential bodily functions, such as heart, lung and mental function, but does not account
for calories burned when sleeping
Thermic Effect of Feeding (TEF)
Food provides us with energy, but the process of eating also requires energy. Around
10% of or TDEE is made up of this requirement
Activity
This may be a surprise but only 10-15% of our total daily energy expenditure comes from
physical activity of any sort. However, this relatively small amount can have a huge
effect on our body composition, i.e. how much fat we have and how many calories we
need to optimally sustain ourselves and our sports/fitness training
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Metabolic rate: sports training has a significant effect on weight
gain and weight loss
The effects sports and fitness training has on our metabolic rate
and calorific needs
How do you know how many calories you are burning during
exercise?
When we exercise we increase our metabolic rate as our body boosts its energy output to
meet demand. Calories measure the energy release from food (see box).
Research has provided the calorific requirements of numerous sports activities. It should
be noted that although these figures are relatively accurate, they vary in regard to:
Your weight. A heavier person will burn more calories, everything else being equal
compared to a lighter one, simply because more energy is required to overcome the
greater resistance.
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How to calculate metabolic rateFollowing the steps below will enable you to
gain an indication of the calorific value of your metabolic rate
Step 1 Calculate your RMR
Age:
18-30
Multiply your weight in Kg x 14.7
and add 496
Example: 65Kg Individual
65 x 14.7 + 496 = 1451.5 RMR
31-60
Multiply your weight in Kg x 8.7
and add 829
65 Kg Individual
65 x 8.7 + 829 = 1394.5 RMR
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Your level of fitness. Someone who is fitter, for example, at rowing will be more ‘energy
(and therefore calorie) efficient’ than someone who is less fit. This is why exercise
intensity needs to be continually increased (progressively) if increased calorie burning is
your objective, for example, in order to achieve a weight loss goal (or negative energy
balance – of which more later).
Atmospheric conditions. The body will burn more calories in hotter, humid conditions
than in temperate ones. This is due to the energy required to maintain its cooling
processes and reduce core temperature
Body types. Certain people – particularly those with lean wiry frames (‘ectomorphs’) –
tend to have faster metabolic rates, which can enhance calorie burning.
Metabolic rate generally slows with age, sports and fitness training can do much to
challenge this.
Table 1 displays the calories burned during various sport and fitness activities. It will be
of use to athlete and coach in terms of calculating calorific expenditure
Step 2 Estimate your daily activity requirements in calories
Multiply your RMR by your daily activity level as indicated by one of the figures
in the table below
Activity level
Not much
Moderate
Active
Defined as
Little or no physical activity
RMR x 1.4
Some physical activity, perhaps at work or the odd
RMR x 1.7
weekly gym visit
Regular physical activity at work and or at the gym
RMR x 2.0
(three visits per week)
Examples:25 year old weights 65Kg and has a moderate activity
level – 1451.5 x 1.7 = 2466.7 Kcal40 year old weighs 80Kg and
has an active activity level – 1525 x 2.0 = 3050 KcalAdapted from
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Bean, A: The Complete Guide to Sports NutritionExcess post
oxygen consumption (EPOC)
Sports and fitness training can increase metabolic rate by as much
as 20%. This is due to EPOC. Unlike a car when the ignition is
turned off, our body’s engine does not stop immediately after we
have taken it for a run, row or performed a weights workout. The
processes involved in producing the energy required for these and
all other sports, fitness and general activity, take a while to slow
down and return to base line levels. These processes include, the
restocking of muscle fuel (notably a specific type of carbohydrate,
known as glycogen) and the normalisation of lactate levels in our
body. Lactate is used in energy creation at all times. Its levels
increase with exercise. When we stop exercising it is still buzzing
around inside us at a great rate. It needs time to slow down and in
some circumstances be re-converted back to its original chemical
format – and this all requires energy. Additionally, when we
workout, particularly using weights, microscopic tears occur in our
muscles and it is during the recovery period when these are
repaired and our muscles grow stronger – again this requires
energy. The more the intense the exercise the greater the
EPOC.Sports scientists have discovered two distinct EPOC
phases:EPOC phase 1The most significant – in terms of calorie
burning – occurs in the two to three hours after training. The less
significant given the same criteria lasts up to 48 hours after
training.If you do not factor EPOC in to your calorie requirements
you could experience muscle loss, lack of energy and a failure to
obtain sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals needed to
optimally maintain bodily processes. Basically your body would be
running ‘energy light’ – not getting enough fuel to optimally power
it.Table 1 Energy expenditure and exerciseEnergy expenditure
in calories per minute for selected activities against selected body
weight (Kg)
Activity
Kg 59
62
65
68
71
74
77
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80
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3.0 3.1
5.9 6.2
3.3
6.5
3.4
6.8
3.6
7.1
3.7
7.4
3.9
7.7
4.0
8.0
6.4 6.8
7.6 7.9
7.1
8.3
7.4
8.7
7.7
9.1
8.1
9.5
8.4
9.9
8.7
10.2
12.5 13.1 13.6 14.2 14.8 15.4 16.0 16.5
Weight and plyometric (jumping) training burn approximately 5-8
calories per minute dependent on body weight and exercise
intensityHow can you specifically measure the amount of
calories you burn during a workout?As well as using the figures
from table 1 (and other similar calculators that you can find on the
net), you can use:Calorie counters on heart rate monitors.
However, they only provide an estimate of energy expenditure and
are about 90% accurate.Galvanic response. The 100% accurate
method is to use devices that measure what’s known as galvanic
skin response (basically electrical energy) produced by the body.
These are worn usually on the upper arm and the information from
them is downloaded. These devices are becoming increasingly
available in the fitness and sports world – they were originally the
preserve of cardiologists in the medical world.As a sports or fitness
participant you must factor in EPOC when calculating your calorie
expenditure and metabolic needs, for the reasons mentioned, if you
are to optimise your training.
Muscle as a calorie burnerIt was mentioned that increased lean
muscle mass can increase metabolic requirements. Muscle is very
active body tissue, not only when it is firing to produce sports and
fitness movements, but also when it is ‘sitting’ on your body.
Research indicates that an additional 0.45Kg (1lb) of muscle burns
about 35 calories a day. Now that does not sound a lot, but over 10
days that 0.45kg will have amounted to 350 calories, which is the
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Volleyball
Easy
cycling
Tennis
Easy
swimming
Running
8
min/mile
pace
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equivalent of a half hour moderately paced run. So as with EPOC
it is important to account for the effects that an increase in lean
muscle can have on metabolic rate.
Note: women may not benefit to the same extent as men from
increased lean muscle mass calorie burning. This may reflect their
naturally higher levels of body fat – with the latter cancelling out
the gains made by the former
Understanding food energy
A Kilocalorie (Kcal) represents the amount of energy needed to
increase the temperature of 1Kg of water by 1 degree centigrade
and is the unit commonly used to measure the energy released
from food or burned in sports activities. As in this article,
Kilocalories are often referred to simply as ‘calories’. Food
packaging also gives energy release in kilojoules (kJ), the
international standard for energy. To convert Kcal to kJ, multiply
by 4.2 and to convert kJ to Kcal divide by 4.2.
The energy balance equationIn order to lose weight you need to
create a ‘negative energy balance’ – that is, to consume fewer
calories than you expend. In order to gain weight (and this could
be your objective, if you want to increase muscle mass for a sport
such as shot-putting), you need a ‘positive energy balance’ – that
is, to consume more calories than you expend. And to maintain
weight you need to create a ‘balanced energy balance’ – to
consume a similar amount of calories to those expended.As you’ll
have realised, metabolic rate is a very important variable in terms
of maintaining optimum physical condition and weight. As an
athlete or fitness trainer, fully comprehending what effects your
training routine is having on it will enable you to optimise your
training returns. Failure to do so could result in impaired training
response, illness and injury, due to insufficient calories and the
optimum supply of nutrients required to maximise physical
performance.
Body type training – are we slaves to our ‘body type’ genes?
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Body type training – are we slaves to our ‘body type’ genes?
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Article at a glance:
The classification of body types is made;
The relationship between body types, sports suitability and sports
performance is identified;
Other factors influencing sports performance from a physiological
perspective are presented.
The human body comes in a huge array of different shapes and
sizes, but should your natural body type dictate the sport you
choose or the way you train? John Shepherd looks at the evidence
and in particular whether it’s nature or nurture that really countsIn
a particular sport or event within a sport, the participants will often
share a similar body shape. For example, male sprinters tend to be
relatively tall and be proportionately muscled, whilst female
gymnasts tend to be relatively slight with very low body fat and
shot-putters relatively round with more body fat and large muscles.
These sports’ body shapes quite closely reflect the three derivative
‘somatotypes’ (body type classifications). The sprinter fits the
typical mesomorph body type, the gymnast the ectomorph, and the
shot-putter the endomorph. In this article, we’ll consider the
relationship between body types, sports performance and training
response.
Somatotypes, body classification and ‘typical’ training
responseAs indicated there are three main body types or
somatotypes: endomorphs, mesomorphs and ectomorphs. This
basic classification derives from the work of the psychologist
William Sheldon in the mid 20th century. In everyday terms these
types can be described as ‘fat’, ‘athletic’ and ‘thin’ (see figure 1).
Sheldon believed that each somatotype had distinct physiological
(and psychological) traits.
Figure 1: Sheldon’s three main somatotypes
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Although his work is perhaps overstated it provides a useful
starting point for the analysis of male and female body types. This
is because it’s possible to identify the ways that these types will
typically respond physiologically to training and the way they are
represented across various sports.Most athletes (and non-athletes)
are actually an amalgamation of the three main body types and
there is a further level of somatotype classification that describes a
body type in terms of ‘parts’ of the three. This is known as
‘dominant somatotype’. Sheldon identified ‘seven parts’, 1-7 for
each somatotype, with 1 being the minimum and 7 the maximum
number of parts attributable to that somatotype. For example, 2-6-3
indicates low endomorphy, high mesomorphy and low ectomorphy
(note variations to this system exist which use decimal points). The
panels on this page describe the three main body types more fully.
The influence of body type on sports selection
Athletes often seem to fit a blueprint for their sport and numerous
research findings appear to confirm what common sense suggests.
Greek researchers looked at the somatotypes (as well as body
composition and anthropometric measurements) of 518 elite Greek
basketball, volleyball and handball players(1). The team
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discovered that the volleyball players were the tallest and had the
lowest levels of body fat. Their somatotype was characterised as
‘balanced endomorph’ (3.4-2.7-2.9). Basketball players were taller
and leaner than handball players. The former were profiled as
mesomorph-endomorph (3.7-2.7-2.9). The latter were profiled as
mesomorph-endomorph also but their ratio was identified as 4.24.7-1.8.
Jargonbuster
Body composition
The ratio of lean (muscle) mass to fat (non lean weight)
Anthropometric measurements
Specific measurements of limbs and body parts
Overtraining syndrome
Identified state of health when the athlete will negatively adapt to
training, become injured or ill
Delving deeper, the researchers also considered level of
performance, as the athletes represented both the first and second
divisions of their sports. Interestingly it was discovered that the
first division players were taller, heavier, but leaner than the
second division players. Even more interesting was the fact that
players from all the three sports displayed a greater similarity
between somatotype characteristics. It is possible that this
similarity could be attributed to that particular somatotype balance
making for ‘better’ players.
American researchers went a little further than their Greek
counterparts by looking at somatotype differences within a
sport(2). Specifically, they considered 168 elite basketball players.
The team discovered that there were considerable differences
between playing positions; guards had greater mesomorphy than
centres, and less ectomorphy than forwards and centres.
Serbian researchers took up the theme of this research and
basketball was again the sport of choice(3). Interestingly the
conclusions on somatotypes by the Greek researchers were
somewhat different than those reached by their Serbian
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counterparts (of which more later). The particularly interesting
aspect of this research was the inclusion of the relationship
between physiological capability and body type across a number of
measures.
The 60 players surveyed came from five clubs in the Serbian first
division. Physiological testing of the players was carried out during
the final week of their pre-season training. Players were
categorised according to court position. Here’s what the
researchers found:
Centres were taller and heavier than guards and forwards;
Forwards were taller and heavier than guards;
Centres carried more body fat than guards and forwards;
Centres had lower estimated VO2max values compared to forwards
and guards;
Guards’ heart rates did not reach the same levels of centres and
forwards during the last minute of a bleep test;
Centres had better vertical jump power than guards.
These findings led the researchers to conclude that ‘The results of
the present study demonstrate that a strong relationship exists
between body composition, aerobic fitness, anaerobic power and
positional roles in elite basketball.’
Conundrum
You may have noticed that the Greeks and Serbian researchers
were not consistent in their findings relating to body type
propensities and basketball playing position. The Greek guards for
example had greater mesomorphy (and endomorphic tendencies)
than their Serbian counterparts; however, it was the Serbian centres
who were more mesomorphic with endomorphic tendencies.
This throws up a very interesting conundrum and challenges the
assumption that only certain classifications of body types are
suitable for certain sports/positions. Although it is a given that
being tall will be a distinct advantage for basketball, it may well
also be that training factors or even the natural genetic tendencies
of a race can also influence the ‘ideal playing position shape’. This
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also chimes in with recent research identifying the presence of
certain ‘sporting genes’ – ie genes that are a positive asset for
sports performance (more on this later).
Nature versus nurture and the identification of sporting genes
Body type is established at birth, while body shape is the result of
physiological adaptations to training, diet and lifestyle factors.
However, there are sufficient anomalies in sport to show that body
types can vary (to a degree) within a sport and player positions.
Compare for example the more endomorphic-mesomorph body
shape of English striker Wayne Rooney with the more
ectomorphic-mesomorph French striker Thierry Henri – both great
footballers.
According to Mike Rennie, professor of clinical physiology at the
University of Nottingham Medical School in Derby, the split
between nature and nurture is about 55:45. He provides the
example of identical twins from Germany, one of whom was an
endurance athlete, the other a power sportsman(4).
Nurture is of course a powerful influencing factor and one that is
often cited in the case of Kenyan distance runners who have won
more distance, steeplechase and cross-country Olympic and world
titles than any other nationality. However, the famed running
doctor Tim Noakes indicates that these runners have a greater
preponderance of fast-twitch muscle fibre, especially when
compared to their North American and European counterparts(5).
But it is also possible to argue that this is a training response and
not a genetic one as most humans start off with a fairly even
distribution of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres. And perhaps
even more crucially for the nurture argument, running is an
endemic feature of Kenyan life. It’s also one of the few areas
where Kenyans can display their prominence on the world stage
and gain individual notoriety and wealth; this makes it all the more
likely for them to do it.
Jargonbuster
Fast-twitch muscle fibre
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Power and speed producing muscle fibre
Slow-twitch muscle fibre
Endurance producing muscle fibre
Sporting genes
Research has recently begun to appear on sporting genes. These
are specific identifiable genes that have been found to be relevant
to enhanced sports performance. By 2005 nearly 200 genes had
already been identified as having a direct effect on sports and
fitness performance and training adaptation(6).
The EPOR (erythropoietin receptor) gene, for example, has been
identified as crucial for red blood cell production. In some people
this gene mutates and continues to work producing an abnormal
amount of red blood cells. Finnish researchers identified an entire
family with this EPOR mutation, several of whom were
championship endurance athletes, including the great cross-country
gold medalist skier, Eero Mantyranta(4). Mantyranta won two gold
medals at the 1964 winter games and it was discovered that EPOR
mutation allowed him to produce 50% more red blood cells(7).
As red blood cells are crucial for carrying oxygen to the working
muscle the EPOR gene is crucial for enhancing aerobic
performance, regardless of body type. Other similar genetic
research has indicated that one in five Europeans cannot produce
the alpha-actinin-3 protein found in fast-twitch muscle fibres. This
genotype is crucial for speed and power sports(4). A lack of it
appears to reduce the potential for Europeans to be as fast as their
Afro-American counterparts. Coincidentally it is being argued that
the first genetically mutated athletes could be competing in next
year’s Olympic games!
The difference between body type and body shape
Body shape is the trained response or the everyday life
response/effect that ‘changes’ an individual’s body type. Long
distance runners may have a body type that has mesomorphic
tendencies; however, while they are in training, due to their high
calorie expenditure and lack of training emphasis on building (and
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maintaining muscle) they may well develop a more ectomorphic
shape. At the other end of the spectrum, countless millions of the
sedentary general public will gradually take on more of an
endomorphic shape as they gain weight, due to a lack of exercise,
excess calorie intake and poor food choices generally!
Conclusions
Body type analyses provide a strong starting point for sports
selection, prowess and training response. Although it is very much
the case that certain body types seem better suited to certain sports,
there is still very much a degree of ‘you are what you train for’.
This is true within certain parameters and has been exemplified by
research pointing to differences and anomalies within playing
position in basketball (and other sports). Additionally, the more
recent research into sporting genes could have even greater
implications than body type in terms of ‘determining’ who will be
good at certain sports and indeed who will be ‘made’ better at
sport.
John Shepherd MA is a specialist health, sport and fitness writer
and a former international long jumper
References
Sports Med Phys Fitness 2006 Jun; 46(2):271-80
J Sports Sci 2005 Oct; 23(10):1057-63
J Strength Cond Res 2006 Nov; 20(4):740-4
The Guardian, Thursday August 5, 2004
The Lore of Running, Noakes T
www.medscape.com/viewarticle/551096
www.newscientist.com/channel/life/ genetics/mg19125655.300only-drugs-can-stop-the-sports-cheats.html
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women faster than men
Woman Faster Than Men? : Will women ever outpace men?
That is a question that has obsessed many commentators in the
sports science community for a number of years – and the answer
is less clear-cut than it used to be. The authors of a leading article
137
published in the prestigious British Journal of Sports Medicine
point out that: ‘Although serious consideration does not indicate
the slightest chance of a woman being the fastest human on the
planet at distances of 100-200m, there are factors that may favour
women over longer distances’.
It is not only the rapid improvement in female running, especially
over the marathon distance, between 1963 and 1984 that supports
this idea, they explain. Further backing comes from scientific
evidence of natural female advantages, including the ability to run
aerobically at a higher percentage of maximal oxygen uptake,
resistance to oxidative stress and a higher pain threshold.
And, although men show no signs as yet of being beaten over
Olympic distances, they are already beginning to lose the battle at
ultra-distances. As the leader points out, consistent male
superiority is already a matter of history in possibly the most
challenging ultra-race, the ‘Badwater Ultramarathon’, a 216k race
at crucifying temperatures of up to 55°C. Although men dominated
this race during the 1980s and 1990s, in 2002 and 2003 a female
ultra-runner outpaced the fastest man by about 4.5 and 0.5 hours
respectively. Furthermore, since 2002 up to three women have
been in the first five finishers, even through there were more male
than female participants.
Pundits will be watching with intense interest to see whether this
apparent advantage can be transferred to shorter races.
Br J Sports Med 2005; 39:410
gender performance
Gender Performance : Will women ever outpace men?
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Will females ever outpace males in running events? Time and again this question has led
to fierce debate within the lay and scientific community (1-6). Performance differentials
between men and women are most commonly attributed to such issues as body size and
composition, with men tending to be larger than women, with a lower percentage of body
fat combined with a higher relative muscle mass. From this perspective, there is not the
slightest chance of a female being the fastest human on the planet over 100m or 200m,
argue Professor Ralph Beneke and Dr Renate Leithäuser.
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Men also have a higher aerobic capacity and a bigger absolute and relative mass of
haemoglobin than women. But, while these attributes appear to give men an advantage in
endurance events, their greater muscle mass can be a disadvantage in such events.
Rapid improvements in female marathon performance between 1963 and 1984 (see figure
1, below) served to support the idea that women might one day outpace men in longdistance events (4). However, marathon performances by both sexes are more likely to
reflect historical than biological factors.
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Figure 1: graph showing reductions in male and female world-best
marathon times from 1908, with projections to 2050. Note that the
model implies women will never outpace men in the marathon
Male marathoners demonstrated huge improvements during the
early years of the last century, after the current marathon distance
was established as an Olympic event. After near- stagnant progress
between the 1920s and 50s, a new period of rapid improvement
139
was ushered in by scientific progress in coaching and sports
medicine, although the rate of improvement slowed down
significantly after the 1970s.
The lack of improvement in female marathon performance
between 1926 and 1963 can be attributed to the fact that women
could not officially participate in marathon races. In fact, in spite
of dramatic improvements in female performance during the
1970s, 80s and 90s, it wasn’t until 1984 that the marathon became
a female Olympic event.
However, men have always been faster than women over every
Olympic distance, and a model applied on all world best results
over the marathon distance set since 1908 predicts an endpoint of
marathon performance in females at two hours, 15 minutes (see
figure 1). This prediction may be a rather conservative if not
pessimistic view, particularly in the light of the fact that this time
was almost reached (by the UK’s Paula Radcliffe) in 2003.
However, when applied to males, the model forecasts faster times
than previously predicted (1:57:46). Irrespective of whether such a
model allows for meaningful extrapolations to the near or far
future, it clearly supports the idea of a near- plateau in gender
differences at this distance (6,7). Further analyses supported the idea
of a steady gender difference of about 10% in races up to 200km
(8)
. Nevertheless, there are some important factors that may favour
women over very long distances.
Any form of exercise starts a series of acute physiological
reactions involving activation of the hormonal and autonomic
nervous system. These responses affect, in turn, the conversion of
food to energy and the subjective perception of exercise (9). And
there is evidence that these effects are highly gender-specific (10).
There is some evidence that women can run aerobically at a higher
percentage of their maximal oxygen uptake than men (7). During
the early phase of a 90-minute run, women were able to convert
more fat to energy than men; and, more importantly, if a
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140
carbohydrate drink was provided during the run, they were able to
convert a greater relative proportion of it to energy than men.
The implication of this research is that carbohydrate ingestion,
which is particularly common in longer events, is likely to be more
effective in conserving the body’s own glycogen stores in women
than in men, which would be particularly conducive to success in
races longer than the marathon.
Other research has shown that women are more resistant than men
to the potentially damaging oxidative stress that accompanies
endurance exercise (11). This is partly because they have more
effective mechanisms for breaking down fats into their constituent
fatty acids – a process known as ‘lipolysis’ which acts as a defence
against oxidative stress (12).
Growth hormone levels increase during acute exercise and are
thought to promote positive adaptations to training and recovery.
Higher natural levels of growth hormone have been seen in women
than in men (13).
Whether or not such findings provide meaningful clues to whether
or not women will be able to close the performance gap in races up
to 200k, consistent male superiority is already a matter of history
in possibly the most challenging ultra-race, the Badwater
Ultramarathon. This event, starting in California’s notoriously
inhospitable Death Valley, is a 216k one-stage race performed at
temperatures up to 55°C and bedevilled by challenging uphill and
downhill stretches, as illustrated in figure 2 below.
Figure 2: elevation profile of the challenging Badwater
Ultramarathon
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141
Males dominated this event during the 1980s and 90s. However,
despite the fact that women have less effective mechanisms than
men for regulating their body heat in extremely hot environments
(14)
, in both 2002 and 2003 a female ultra-runner outpaced the
fastest male by about 4.5 and 0.5 hours, respectively. Furthermore,
in each of the last three years, up to three women have been within
the first five finishers – particularly impressive given that this is a
race that has always attracted significantly more male than female
participants.
Will females consistently outpace males over such ultra distances
in the future? That may soon be a matter of fact rather than
conjecture.
Professor Ralph Beneke (BSc, MD, PhD) and Dr Renate
Leithäuser (MD, PhD) are both physicians and sports and exercise
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1. Br J Sports Med 39(7):410
2. Nature 431:525, 2004
3. Science 305:639-640, 2004
4. J Appl Physiol 67:453-465, 1989
5. Nature 355:25, 1992
6. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 44(1):8-14, 2004
7. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 13(4):407-421, 2003
8. Can J Appl Physiol 29:139-145, 2004
9. J Endocrinol Invest 26(9):879-85, 2003
10. Pain 96(3):335-342, 2002
11. Arch Med Res 35(4):294-300, 2004
12. Eur J Appl Physiol 85:151-156, 2001
13. J Endocrinol Invest 27(2):121-129, 2004
14. Sports Med 229(5):329-359, 2000
15. Sports Science Glossary Part 6
16.
Sports Science Glossary Part 6
Linear progression
The record for an event, plotted against time, falls roughly along a
straight line
Asymptotic progression
The record for an event falls along a curve that flattens out
gradually with time
Aerobic capacity
The ability to process oxygen for conversion to energy
Haemoglobin
A substance contained in red blood cells that is responsible for
transporting oxygen around the body
Autonomic nervous system
Governs bodily functions that are not under conscious control – eg
heartbeat
Oxidative stress
A series of reactions to increased use of oxygen, including the
production of potentially harmful ‘free radicals’
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scientists at the University of Essex. They are both involved in the
training of world class athletes
References
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Growth hormone
A hormone that promotes growth of the long bones in the limbs
and increases protein production by the body
East African running
East African running: an alternative explanation for the East
African dominance of distance running
Researchers have long speculated on the factors that contribute to making an elite
athlete. When a particular group appears to dominate a given domain, even more
speculation and interest is generated. Current examples from sport include the
American dominance of basketball and the Northern European dominance of Nordic
skiing. An example that has garnered much attention(1,2) is East African dominance of
middle- and long-distance running. Although several empirically based positions have
been advanced to explain the interindividual variation in performance(3,4), the
dominance of black athletes in certain sports has been commonly attributed to factors
such as social Darwinism – that is, the hardships of slavery resulted in a degree of
genetic selection(5) – and environmental determinism – that is, physiological
adaptations associated with living under certain environmental conditions (1).
Hamilton (6) examined empirical evidence for a range of influences that may contribute
to East African running dominance, including environmental, social, psychological, and
physiological variables. After examining research from various disciplines, he
concluded that there was no clear explanation for the East African supremacy.
However, Hamilton argued that psychological factors may perpetuate this dominance
by attributing differences between African and white running performances to stable
external factors, thereby disempowering white runners and empowering East African
runners. Regardless of the possible existence of physiological advantages in East
African runners, belief that such differences exist creates a psychological atmosphere
that can have significant consequences on performance.
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The following original paper from Canada, published recently in the British Journal of
Sports Medicine, is reproduced in full by kind permission of the BMJ Publishing Group.
Br J Sports Med 2003;37:553-555
Stereotype threat
Recent research in psychology has unveiled insights that are particularly relevant to
this debate. It is distinctly possible that what we believe to be true about our genetic
make-up may be more important than what is actually true.
Stone et al(7) gave black and white students a laboratory golf task that ostensibly
measured ‘natural athletic ability’, ‘sport intelligence’, or ‘sport psychology’,
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Steele and Aronson(8) introduced stereotype threat as an explanation for the lower
scores of black American students on standardised intelligence tests. The authors had
been perplexed by the persistent gap in scores between blacks and whites, which
endured even if black students came from well educated families of middle-class
standing. However, Steele and Aronson found that black students scored just as well
as whites on standard intelligence tests when the tests were presented as diagnostic
tools that did not measure intellectual capacities. They determined that it was not the
test itself, rather the situational pressure surrounding the test, that resulted in poorer
scores. Performance decreased when black students were confronted with the
possibility of confirming a widespread stereotype about low intelligence in blacks.
Significantly, stereotype threat affects the academic vanguard more than it does the
weaker students. A person has to care about a domain in order to be disturbed by the
prospect of being stereotyped in it. Good students are generally invested in and have
identified with the domain and thus are more prone to the situational pressure that is
stereotype threat. Students who did not identify with the domain were remarkably
unaffected. Weaker students reduced cognitive effort as soon as the test became
challenging, resulting in poor performance, regardless of whether they were under
stereotype threat or not(9). Therein lies another key to stereotype threat – the test
must be challenging. It is only when one gets to a difficult section, and the possibility
arises of confirming the negative stereotype, that sufficient stress arises to impair
performance.
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depending on how the test was presented. Nothing changed in the test itself, just the
perception of what the test measured. Both black and white students scored equally
well on the sport psychology control condition. However, black participants
outperformed white ones when the task was framed as a test of natural athletic
ability, whereas white participants outperformed black ones when the task was
framed as a test of sport intelligence. This phenomenon is referred to as stereotype
threat and may be of help in explaining the dominance of certain sports by specific
groups. Although scientific inquiry into genetic differences between races remains
unresolved, previous research suggests that belief in such differences has a large
impact on performance.
Oddly enough, a person does not even have to believe the stereotype to be affected
by it. Awareness, even at a subconscious level, appears to be sufficient. For example,
Levy (10) primed [senior citizens] using subliminal messages and then gave them a
memory test. Those who had been primed with negative words associated with old
age, such as senile or forgetful, performed worse than seniors primed with positive
words like wise and sage.
Spencer et al (11) found that stereotype threat was equally applicable to women and
maths skills. If women are reminded of the stereotype that they are inferior to men in
mathematical ability, their test scores decrease. If the same test is reframed so that
women believe it is simply a research tool, they score just as well as men. Current
findings indicate that anywhere a stereotype exists, stereotype threat can be invoked
and performance depressed. In a related study, white men, selected on the basis of
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their strong maths skills, performed worse when they were compared with Asian men,
a group traditionally thought to excel at maths. A control group not subjected to
stereotype threat suffered no such performance decrease (12).
This widespread societal belief in the athletic superiority of blacks is actually a
relatively recent phenomenon. Hoberman (14) notes that during colonial rule blacks
were considered inferior sportsmen. In fact, at the dawn of the 20th century there
was concern even among black scholars at the lack of physicality of the black race(14).
However, the tables have turned considerably in the past hundred years. Impressive
accomplishments from black athletes during the first decade of the 1900s – for
example, Marshall Taylor and Jack Johnson – followed by the record-breaking
performances of black sprinters like Jesse Owens provided the basis for the belief that
black athletic superiority is genetic in origin(15). The current dominance of black
athletes in a number of high-profile sports has certainly done nothing to dispel this
belief. Furthermore, as Hamilton suggests(6), the psychological edge this belief gives
black athletes may be the key to maintaining that superiority. Indeed, in stereotype
threat we see evidence of the power of such beliefs.
Short-term effects
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The sporting field also contains its share of stereotypes, particularly when it comes to
black-white differences. The perception of the athletic superiority of black people is
widespread, with the media contributing substantially to such thinking (2,5). Stone et
al(13) examined popular perceptions of racial stereotypes by having participants
evaluate the abilities of a male basketball player based on a radio broadcast of a
college game. Even though participants listened to the same broadcast, they were
more likely to attribute talent and natural athletic ability to the player if they thought
he was black and were more likely to attribute hard work and sport intelligence to the
player if they believed he was white.
The poorer performance associated with stereotype threat has been attributed to the
anxiety and distress caused by association with a negative stereotype. Blascovich et
al(16) examined the effects of stereotype threat on blood pressure in African
Americans. They found that groups placed under stereotype threat displayed larger
increases in mean arterial blood pressure (a measure of somatic anxiety) and
performed more poorly on difficult test items than African Americans not under
stereotype threat. In typical models of anxiety(17), the occurrence of a stressor, in this
case stereotype threat, creates a state of anxiety (see figure 1, below). State
anxiety(18) is manifested either somatically through physical responses, such as
sweating and increased respiration, or cognitively through worry or concentration
disruption. Each of these manifestations has been linked to negative effects on
physical performance(19). Further, whereas a certain amount of physical arousal has
been seen as beneficial for sport performance (cf the inverted U hypothesis)(20),
certain research(21) suggests that any amount of cognitive anxiety is detrimental to
performance.
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Moreover, athletes performing at elite levels of competition normally adopt a telic, or
serious, goal-oriented motivational state. To the elite athlete, performing well is an
important outcome. However, researchers(22,23) suggest that adopting a motivational
state that is telic is more highly affected by anxiety than adopting a paratelic – that is,
playful, non-serious – motivational state.
Perhaps the most damaging effects of stereotype threat are long-term, such as
feelings of dissatisfaction and ultimately dropout from sport. The benefits of longterm involvement in physical activity are well known. They include increases in
physical competence and associated increases in self-esteem(24). However, Steele(25)
postulated that, in chronic situations of stereotype threat, individuals become
pressured to ‘disidentify’ with the domain to preserve feelings of self-worth.
Disidentification involves a reconceptualisation of one’s self-image to remove the
value associated with a domain, thereby reducing the impact of negative
performance. Stone(26) recently replicated these results in a sport context.
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Long-term effects
Disidentification, although useful for maintaining self-image, can undermine the
motivation required for long-term involvement in an activity. Sustained motivation is
dependent on feelings of achievement and accomplishment(27). In a related study,
Stone(26) found that stereotype threat was related to the quality of practice performed
by participants executing a golf task. Specifically, white athletes who felt they were
being examined for natural athletic ability showed less practice effort than white
athletes who were not under the threat of confirming racially based stereotypes – that
is, poor white athleticism. In addition, stereotype threat only affected athletes for
whom sport was an important component of their self concept. Participants who were
disconnected from the outcome of the task performed at a level no different from
control subjects. Stone hypothesised that athletes concerned with confirming a
racially based stereotype ‘self-handicap’ – that is, perform less effortful practice – to
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create ambiguity about the cause of a poor performance. Athletes proactively respond
to an anticipated mediocre outcome by withdrawing practice effort, thereby avoiding
the confirmation of a stereotype about poor natural athletic ability in white athletes.
Although longitudinal studies of the effects of these actions have not been performed,
it seems reasonable that decreased practice effort over time would undermine skill
acquisition and limit the physiological adaptations necessary for performance at the
highest levels of sport competition.
The extent to which athletes choose or opt out of sports based on perceived genetic
suitability is an area worthy of future study. Just as negative stereotypes can lead
women away from maths-based careers in finance or engineering, there is evidence to
suggest that athletes may be choosing their sports based on athletic stereotypes.
Coakley(28) notes that young athletes have internalised these stereotypes and are
choosing sport participation accordingly. He speculates that this is the reason why
white running times in certain events have actually decreased over the past few years;
whites are opting out of some sports based on perceived genetic inferiority.
Coaches and support staff need to be aware of ways of dealing with situations
involving stereotype threat. Steele(25) presented methods for overcoming stereotype
threat in academic settings, several of which are also useful for performance in the
athletic environment. Steele(9) theorised that underperformance appeared to be
rooted less in self doubt than in social mistrust. Therefore niceness and reassurance on
the part of the teachers was not enough. Steele found that emphasising high standards
was the key to gaining social trust. For criticism to be accepted across the racial
divide in an academic setting, feedback had to be given with the emphasis on high
standards, conveyed with the belief that the student could achieve those standards.
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Effects on young athletes
Although this research has yet to be replicated in an athletic domain, it provides clear
guidance for coaches working in multiracial environments. When dealing with athletes,
coaches should consistently emphasise high standards of performance for all,
irrespective of race. Evidence suggests in order for stereotype threat to influence
performance, the stereotype must be made salient in the particular context,
Accordingly, coaches should avoid off-hand comments or jokes suggesting, for
example, ‘white men can’t jump’ or ‘blacks are better runners’, especially before
competition. In addition, coaches and trainers should show clear optimism in their
athlete’s abilities. All attempts should be made to increase the athlete’s feelings of
self-efficacy – that is, the athletes’ beliefs in their abilities to accomplish desired
courses of action – before competition. Moreover, these feelings must be reinforced
after the event regardless of the results to ensure that stereotype threat has a limited
role in future competitions. Clearly, coaches should also stress the equivocal research
findings on race and athletic performance. One method of reducing the negative
consequences associated with stereotype threat is by minimising the legitimacy of the
stereotype. If athletes are educated as to the lack of consistent findings for racial
dominance in sport, the power of the stereotype may be effectively limited.
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Research examining the role of stereotype threat in elite levels of performance is
virtually non-existent. As a result, the suggestions presented in this paper, although
based on strong research with non-elite samples, remain speculative. Future research
should consider the role of stereotype threat as a reason for performance differences
in racially dominated sports such as middle- and long-distance running. Without
indisputable evidence indicating the genetic advantages associated with a specific
racial group, researchers should continue to examine alternative explanations for the
apparent dominance of one group over another in sport.
J Baker, S Horton
1. Bale J, Sang J: Kenyan Running: movement culture, geography and global
change. London: Frank Cass, 1996
2. Entine J: Taboo: why black athletes dominate sports and why we are afraid to
talk about it. New York: Public Affairs, 2000
3. Bouchard C, Malina RM, Perusse L: Genetics of fitness and physical
performance. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997
4. Psychol Rev 1993;100:363-406
5. Sports Illustrated 1971; 43:72-83
6. Br J Sports Med 2000;34:391-4
7. J Pers Soc Psychol 1999;77:1213-27
8. J Pers Soc Psychol 1995;69:797-811
9. The Atlantic Monthly 1999;284:44-54
10. J Pers Soc Psychol 1996;7:1092-107
11. J Exp Soc Psychol 1999;35:4-28
12. J Exp Soc Psychol;35:29-46
13. Basic Appl Soc Psychol 1997;19:291-306
14. Hoberman J: Darwin’s athletes: how sport has damaged America and
preserved the myth of race. Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1997
15. Wiggins DK, ‘Great speed but little stamina’; the historical debate over Black
athletic superiority. In: Pope SW, ed. The New American Sport History.
Chicago IL: University of Illinois Press, 1997: 312-338
16. Psychol Sci 2001;12:225-9
17. Spielberger CD: Stress and anxiety in sports. In: Hackfort D, Spielberger CD,
eds, Anxiety in sports. New York: Hemisphere, 1989:3-17
18. Spielberger CD: Theory and research on anxiety. In: Spielberger CD, ed,
Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1996:1-17
19. Smith RE, Smoll FL, Wiechman SA: Measurement of trait anxiety in sport. In:
Duda JL ed, Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement.
Morgantown WV: Fitness Information Technology, 1998:105-27
20. Gould D, Krane V: The arousal-athletic performance relationship: current
status and future directions. In: Horn T, ed, Advances in sport psychology.
Champaign IL: Human Kinetics, 1992:119-41
21. Quest 1994;460-77
22. Journal of Human Movement Studies 1987;13:211-29
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23. Martens R: Coach’s guide to sport psychology. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics,
1987
24. Fox KR: The physical self: from motivation to well being. Champaign IL:
Human Kinetics, 1997:
25. Am Psychol 1997;52:613-29
26. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2003; in press
27. Duda JL: Sport and exercise motivation: a goal perspective analysis. In:
Roberts G, ed, Motivation in sport and exercise. Champain IL: Human Kinetics,
1992:57-91
28. Coakley J: Sport and society: issues and controversies, 7th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2001
Ethiopian endurance running
In the increasingly competitive world of international sport, identifying the key
predictors of success has become a major goal for many sports scientists. And nowhere
has the hunt been more focused than in East Africa, where the overwhelming success
of male endurance athletes has kept the nature v nurture debate simmering.
Saltin’s famous study comparing Kenyan and Scandinavian athletes suggested that it
was the distance the Kenyans travelled to school on foot in childhood that gave them
an edge in endurance athletics.
That theory has now received further backing from a major British study comparing
the demographic characteristics of Ethiopian athletes with non-athlete controls from
the same country.
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Nature and nurture in Ethiopian endurance running success
An additional fascinating finding was that élite Ethiopian distance runners are
ethnically distinct from the general Ethiopian population, raising the possibility that
genetic factors might also be involved.
Questionnaires seeking information on place of birth, spoken language (by self and
grandparents), distance from and method of travel to school were given to 114 male
and female members of the Ethiopian national athletics team and 111 Ethiopian
controls, none of whom were regularly training for any track or field athletic events.
The athletes were separated into three groups for comparison: marathon runners (34),
5-10km runners (42) and other track and field athletes (38).
After analysis, the main findings were as follows:
 In terms of regional distribution, there was a significant excess of athletes,
particularly marathoners, from the Arsi and Shewa regions of Ethiopia. 73% of
marathon runners hailed from one of these two regions, compared with 43% of
5-10km runners, 29% of track and field athletes and just 15% of controls. To
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Where does this leave the nature v nurture debate? The findings about travel to school
undoubtedly point to environmental influences, as the researchers acknowledge.
‘…the results implicated childhood endurance activity as a key selection pressure in
the determination of Ethiopian endurance success,’ they say. ‘With the prevalence of
childhood obesity in the United States and Great Britain at an all- time high, and
physical activity levels among such populations in stark contrast to the daily aerobic
activity of Ethiopian children, these factors may offer an explanation for the success
of East-African athletes on the international stage.’
On the other hand, the findings about regional and ethnic origins point to genetic
influences. Or do they? The regions of Arsi and Shewa are situated in the central
highlands of Ethiopia, intersected by the very same Rift Valley that has been
implicated in the success of Kenyan endurance runners. This may seem to support a
link between altitude and endurance success. But it doesn’t explain why Arsi is also
considerably overrepresented in track and field athletes (18%), who would not be
expected to benefit from living and training at altitude.
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put those figures in context, Arsi is the smallest of Ethiopia’s 13 regions,
accounting for less than 5% of the total population, but housing 38% of the
marathon athletes in this study;
 The origin of language of all the athlete groups differed significantly from that
of the controls. Three separate language categories were used: Semitic,
Cushitic and Other; and Cushitic was significantly more predominant in each
of the athlete groups than among the controls. The effect was most
pronounced in the marathon group, where 75% spoke languages of Cushitic
origin compared to 30% of controls;
 In terms of distance travelled to school, the marathon athletes differed
significantly from all other groups. 73% of marathoners travelled more than 5k
to school each day, compared with 32-40% of the other groups. And
marathoners were much more likely to run to school each day than the other
groups (68% v 16-31%).
The researchers put forward an alternative, somewhat more prosaic, hypothesis. ‘One
of the senior Ethiopian athletic coaches informed the investigators that most of the
marathon athletes would be found to be from Arsi,’ they explain. ‘If those in charge of
athletic development believe this, it may cause a self-fulfilling prophecy through
talent scouts focusing more attention to this region or through increased regional
development of athletics.’
What of the findings about language? The fact that most of the marathoners spoke
languages of Cushitic origin (mostly Oromigna, the language of Oromo people) ‘may
reflect a high frequency of potential “performance genes” within this particular
group.
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‘However, it is much more likely,’ the researchers add, ‘that the distinctive ethnic
origin of the marathon athletes is a reflection of their geographical distribution, as
primarily Oromo people populate Arsi.
‘Although not excluding any genetic influence,’ they conclude, ‘the results of the
present study highlight the importance of environment in the determination of
endurance athletic success.’
Med Sci Sports Exerc, vol 35, no 10, pp1727-1732
Are athletes turning to genetic modification
and is drug abuse in sport getting worse?
It's a crying shame when a once proud athlete hits the bottle. It can be even more of a
shame - and frightening too - if that bottle contains a genetic cocktail that might
forever change the competitive balance in sports. And in this Frankenstein world
where genetics meets athletics, the future is now.
'I think certain methods could have already started,' says Johann Olav Koss, the 1994
speed skating champion from Norway who is a member of the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) and a doctor.
In many competitive sports, the difference between the gold medal and also-ran
status is a fraction of a second. No wonder everyone is looking for any edge that
technology might offer. Athletic improvements over the past decade have come to
depend more and more on scientific advances in training, nutrition, and even surgical
enhancements. But perhaps the biggest boost has come from performance-enhancing
additives.
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Genetic engineering and drug abuse
With the widespread use of steroids, human growth hormone and EPO (Erythropoietin,
a hormone that regulates red blood cell production, used to increase the oxygencarrying capacity, and hence the performance, of endurance athletes), runners,
bikers, or swimmers leaning into the wind and water have every reason to eye their
competitors suspiciously. Now the cornucopia of easily available and easily disguisable
pharmaceuticals is joined by the latest and most controversial competitive weapon genetic engineering.
Several promising performance-enhancing gene modifications have already been
successfully tested on animals. They include generating the growth of explosive, fasttwitch muscle fibres and stimulating the release of growth-hormone-releasing
hormone (GHRH), which can make recipients both stronger and leaner.
Medical applications of gene therapy on humans to cure or prevent disease are at a
rudimentary but fast-evolving stage. Instead of treating deficiencies by injecting
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drugs, doctors soon will be able to prescribe genetic treatments that will induce the
body's own machinery to produce the proteins needed to combat illnesses.
'It's not rocket science,' says Theodore Fridemann, director of the gene therapy
programme at the University of California at San Diego and a member of the medical
research committee of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). 'If you asked any
student of molecular biology how he would implant genes to change muscle function,
he could cite three or four ways to do it.'(1)
Two years ago, He-Man was injected with a synthetic version of a gene called Insulinlike Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1), a protein that makes muscles grow and repair
themselves. Today, deep into old age, the once tiny mouse and his gene-modified
brothers and sisters look more like the Turkish weight-lifting icon Naim Suleymanoglu.
After the IGF-1 boosted He-Man's muscle mass by more than 60%, he can now climb a
ladder carrying three times his body weight. 'We call them the Schwarzenegger mice,'
says Nadia Rosenthal, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School who coauthored the study. 'I'd be totally surprised if it was not going on in sports. Those with
terminal cancer and Aids want to know 'What will keep me alive?' Athletes want to
know 'What will help me win?''(2)
As the drug-addled East German and Soviet sports systems demonstrated, athletes and
their managers are willing to strike Faustian bargains to achieve immediate glory. But
this was no Communist-specific phenomenon: in a 1995 survey of nearly 200 aspiring
American Olympians, more than half said they would take a banned substance that
would guarantee victory in every competition for five years even if it would lead to
certain death.
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The model cited by scientists on the cutting edge of sports science - the experimental
patient that sends shivers down the back of the Greenes, the Kipketers, and the
Khannouchis of this world - is 'He-Man', a mouse running endless, tireless circles in his
basement laboratory cage at a University of Pennsylvania physiology laboratory.
Where mice lead in the lab, athletes will follow in the field
'I have no doubt that if this is being done on mice, humans aren't far behind,' says
Bengt Saltin, a former competitive runner, head of the Copenhagen Muscle Research
Institute, and also a member of WADA. 'It would be risky because of unknown side
effects but the basic genetic advances have been made. If scientists are willing to
cooperate, athletes will experiment on themselves.'
Like ordinary genes, the artificial genes consist of DNA, the basic raw materials of
human life. The direct delivery approach would be to inject the DNA into the muscle.
The fibres would then take up the DNA and add it to the normal pool of genes. As this
method is not yet very efficient, researchers often use viruses to carry the gene
payload into a cell's nuclei. That's how the IGF-1 gene was delivered to make He-Man.
Unfortunately, in contrast to the direct injection, the genes are also delivered to
many other cells, such as those of the blood and liver, in addition to the intended
target. A third approach entails removing specific cell types from the patient, adding
the artificial gene in the laboratory and reintroducing the cells into the body. Since
the artificial genes would produce proteins that in many cases are identical to the
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normal proteins, that means you can kiss good-bye to effective policing by sports
agencies.
Just a few injections of this DNA into the quadriceps, hamstring, and gluteus, and the
muscle fibres will start cranking out Velociphin, which will activate the fast myosin
gene. In weeks, the muscles bulge and burst with energy. There are no visible sideeffects and without a muscle biopsy directly into manipulated muscle, the genetic
modification is undetectable.
It's the long-awaited race for Olympic immortality. BANG! The genetically doped
athlete dashes into the lead, extending it with every stride. Then at 65 metres, far out
in front of the field, a sudden twinge tickles the hamstring. Saltin picks up the story.
At 80m, the twinge explodes into an overwhelming pain as he pulls his hamstring. A
tenth of a second later the patella tendon gives in, because it is no match for the
massive forces generated by his quadriceps muscle. The patella tendon pulls out part
of the tibia bone, which then snaps, and the entire quadriceps shoots up along the
femur bone. The athlete crumples to the ground, his running career over.
'This is not the scenario that generally comes to mind in connection with the words
'genetically engineered super athlete',' notes Saltin, but it is part of the reality.(3) For
example, researchers have genetically altered a housefly with muscles 300% stronger
than normal. It may sound promising, but 'the fly actually lost power because it
couldn't make its wings move fast enough' to support the added muscle weight, notes
H. Lee Sweeney, co-author of the He-Man study.(1)
While society has come to view the human body as an invincible machine, it is in fact
a resilient but still delicate balance of tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat. This is a
balance that some fear may be altered radically, permanently, and perhaps perilously
by genetic manipulation.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Bengt Saltin has a recurring nightmare. He imagines a scenario in which an already
elite sprinter obsessed with becoming the world's fastest human turns to a renegade
geneticist familiar with the latest research on the genetic modification of muscle fibre
types. As powerful as the human musculature may appear to be to the layman, it can't
hold a candle, relatively, to the explosive capacity of the muscles of many mammals,
including mice, who call on energy bursts to elude predators. Although the fastest
muscle fibre types are not found in human skeletal muscle, the potential for
developing such fibres are imbedded in long dormant genes. Geneticists have recently
developed a protein known as a 'transcription factor' called Velociphin, which can
activate these genes.
Aside from ethical concerns, there's a practical problem. This has understandably
provoked a host of medical and ethical concerns. 'The only thing keeping athletes from
using genetic manipulation today is the control problem,' says Saltin. 'You can't shut
the production off when you want to.' For example, muscles injected with Velociphin
will continue to produce the explosive fibres without further injection. Geneticists
experimenting with the gene that codes for EPO have discovered that a single
injection into the leg muscles of monkeys produced significantly elevated red blood
cell levels for 20 to 30 weeks. That could prove to be a boon for anemia patients and
provide a performance boost for endurance athletes except for one key problem: in
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the absence of a mechanism to shut down production, the body could turn into a outof-control EPO factory, leading to the thickening of the blood with excessive blood
cells, strokes, heart attacks, and eventually death.
With all of these Frankenstein-like scenarios, it would seem an easy decision to ban
genetic engineering of athletes on ethical grounds. 'The argument in favour of allowing
people to do this is based on our tradition of giving individuals a huge amount of
autonomy over their own bodies,' says Eric Juengst, an ethicist at Case Western
Reserve University in Cleveland. 'The limits on that kind of freedom are interpersonal.
Once your actions cross the line of affecting just yourself and begin to affect other
people, we have licence to step in.'(5)
Surprisingly, not everyone agrees, and in fact the ethical issues turn very murky on
close examination. The current anti-doping rules do not permit the use of steroids
even if prescribed for genuine medical reasons, eg to hasten recovery after an injury.
Yet that is exactly how gene modification in athletes will first be used - say an
injection of IGF-1 to stimulate muscle regeneration. Its use could theoretically allow
an athlete to perform at an optimal level years past what is now considered his prime.
Or imagine an athlete using gene modification to help overcome congenital asthma or
some other genetic abnormality.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
But such problems offer only temporary barriers. Helen Blau, chairwoman of the
department of molecular pharmacology at Stanford Medical School, has demonstrated
that a gene could be introduced into a mouse to stimulate growth hormone in the
bloodstream and then be switched off with the use of an oral antibiotic. 'In theory, it
is possible that an athlete could be genetically engineered to have a gene so you could
increase muscle strength, train with it and shut it off when you want to,' she says.(4)
Not only would such a development prevent inserted genes from spinning out of
control, they would render drug screening almost impossible.
IOC President Jacques Rogge waded into this ethical thicket earlier this year. 'Genetic
manipulation is there to treat people who have ailments, not there to treat a healthy
person,' he says. 'I am very clear on this.' Very few geneticists or ethicists have quite
the same level of clarity. There is a very hazy and debatable line separating 'health
restoration' and 'performance enhancement'.(6)
The case of Helen Smith, an internationally renowned swimming star from Britain
comes to mind. Smith who competes as a quadriplegic was threatened with a ban at
the 2000 Sydney Paralympics for receiving medication that is life-sustaining for her but
was deemed performance-enhancing by Olympic officials. There is already an equal
access controversy in elite sports between wealthier countries which employ cutting
edge technology in equipment, nutrition, and medicines versus the rest of the world
who just muddle along. What makes genetic engineering any different as long as its
focus is in overcoming some real - or perceived - injury-related performance
deficiency?
A further question arises about any kind of genetic manipulation that is introduced
before birth by a well-meaning parent. As Maurice Greene has noted: 'What if you're
born with something having been done to you?' Would manipulation of an egg or an
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embryo be considered cheating, if as Greene hypothesises, 'you don't have anything to
do with it?'(7) It might be unfair to penalise someone for an enhanced genotype but it
is understandably problematic to have that person compete against a non-enhanced
athlete.
Considering the health dimension of genetic enhancement, it certainly appears to be a
more acceptable method of performance enhancement than drugs. The IOC has set up
a 'gene doping' advisory group but seems befuddled by these complex issues. 'The
information from genetic science will feed through into better treatments for disease,
but it also going to present the sports industry with a Pandora's box within the next
five to 10 years,' says Bruce Lynn, a senior neurophysiologist at University College
London's School of Human Health and Performance.
Perhaps. From a purely competitive standpoint, athletics might be more exciting,
pushing the edge of human capability, testing the limits of speed and endurance well
beyond those that science currently accepts.
Until the patella tendon and quadriceps snap and a once valiant athlete is carted off
the track, perhaps never to walk again.
Jon Entine
References:
1, Swift, EM & Yaeger, D, Irish Examiner (July 10, 2001)
2 Cromie, WJ, Harvard Gazette (Feb 11, 1999)
3 Andersen, JL, Schjerling, P & Saltin B, Scientific American (Sept 2000)
4 Longman, J, New York Times (May 11, 2000)
5 Compton M, DNA Dispatch (July 2001)
6 Clarey, C, Intl Herald Tribune (Jan 26, 2001)
7 Chandel, A, Tribune (India) (May 18, 2001)
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
There has even been talk of introducing a handicap for genetically enhanced
contestants or even setting up official performance-enhanced competitions. 'That's a
terrible idea,' bemoans Saltin. 'If genetic engineering is sanctioned, it's the end of
sports as we know it. Sports will be a circus of unbelievable performances.'
Summer and winter athletes: the best
sprinters are born in summer and the best
distance runners in the winter
A babies birth date can determine whether they will be a runner
or a sprinter!
Many of Britain's top sprinters were born in the summer and, perhaps even more
strikingly, most of Britain's best long distance men were born in the winter. That was a
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I looked at the top men at both 100m and 10,000m to the end of 1982, and noted that
of the top 12 at 100m (excluding Trevor Hoyte who was not born in Britain), five were
born in May, as were three others just outside that list. Five of the top six men at
10,000 metres as well as the previous UK record holder, Dick Taylor, were born in
December/January. I wrote at the time that one could get carried away by what might
have been a series of amazing coincidences, but a flight of fancy might lead one to say
that if 100m men are born in the height of summer and 10,000m men in the middle of
winter, then the middle distance men would be somewhere in the middle. Sure
enough: Sebastian Coe was born on September 29, Steve Ovett on October 9, Steve
Cram on October 14, Peter Elliott on October 9, David Moorcroft on April 10, Frank
Clement on April 26 (all world-class milers). There is plenty of divergence after that,
but, wow! the top men certainly fit the pattern.
The top 13 lists at that time showed:
100 metres
Allan Wells 3/5
Ainsley Bennett 22/7
Cameron Sharp 3/6
Peter Radford 20/9
Mike McFarlane 2/5
Brian Green 15/5
Barrie Kelly 2/8
David Jenkins 25/5
Drew McMaster 10/5
Trevor Hoyte 5/1*
Jim Evans 10/4
Ron Jones 19/8
Steve Green 13/10
* born in Trinidad
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
discovery that I made some 20 years ago and about which I wrote in Running Magazine
in 1983. I did not begin to ascribe any astrological significance to this - and any
competent astronomer would tell you that astrology is complete nonsense. However,
it did lead me to wonder if there just might be some significance in my findings perhaps something to do with climatic factors at the time of birth?
10,000 metres
Brendan Foster 12/1
David Bedford 30/12
Julian Goater 12/1
David Black 2/10
Mike McLeod 25/1
Ian Stewart 15/1
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Tony Simmons 6/10
Bernie Ford 3/8
Geoff Smith 24/10
Adrian Royle 12/2
David Clarke 1/1
Steve Jones 4/8
Nick Rose 30/12
These were a strikingly different set of birth dates, but I noted that the theory did not
work so well for the marathon, although there was still a definite winter bias.
UK top 13s at 100m and 10,000m
100 metres
Linford Christie 2/4
Dwain Chambers 5/4
Jason Gardener 18/9
Darren Campbell 12/9
Jason Livingston 17/3
Mark Lewis-Francis 4/9
Allan Wells 3/5
Christian Malcolm 3/6
Darren Braithwaite 20/1
Marlon Devonish 1/6
Michael Rosswess 11/6
John Regis 13/10
Ian Mackie 27/2
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
So, let us revisit the subject - and examine the current situation. Here are the current
UK top 13s for these events.
10,000 metres
Jon Brown 27/2
Eamonn Martin 9/10
Brendan Foster 12/1
David Bedford 30/12
Nick Rose 30/12
Julian Goater 12/1
David Black 2/10
Steve Jones 4/8
Mike McLeod 25/1
Richard Nerurkar 6/1
Ian Stewart 15/1
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Tony Simmons 6/10
Bernie Ford 3/8
A quick glance shows that the story remains much the same, with of course a few
exceptions, such as Darren Braithwaite at 100m and Steve Jones at 10,000m. But the
astonishing fact is that seven of the top 11 at 10,000m were born within a four-week
period from December 30 to January 25.
Of course, with the collapse in distance running in the developed world, the list at
10,000m has not changed so much, and is likely to be pretty static in future, as the
lack of an endurance base in the current generation of children is reflected in everdeclining distance running standards in Britain (and Finland, Sweden, USA, etc).
Jon Brown (1st) 27/2
Karl Keska (15th) 7/5
Keith Cullen (19th) 13/6
Andrew Jones (27th) 3/2
Rob Denmark (30th) 23/11
Mark Steinle (33rd) 22/11
John Nuttall (37th) 11/1
Glynn Tromans (60th) 17/3
Martin Jones (84th) 21/4
Ian Hudspith (89th) 23/9
Keska and Cullen are summer babies, but there remains a winter bias. One man not
mentioned above, but Britain's most successful cross-country runner of the past 20
years, is Tim Hutchings - and he was born on December 4.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
But I next looked at the top men who are currently performing, again in order of
ranking, from the UK 10,000m all-time list:
British top 10 six-milers to 1962
To test the theory further I thought that I should also look back in time, so I went back
20 years and took the British top 10 for 6 miles/10,000m to 1962:
Roy Fowler 26/3
Mike Bullivant 1/3
Martin Hyman 3/11
Mel Batty 9/4
Bruce Tulloh 28/9
Basil Heatley 28/12
Stan Eldon 1/5
George Knight 12/3
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John Merriman 27/6
Gordon Pirie 10/2
This showed nothing like the same mid-winter story, although there were only two
born in the summer.
In my original study I only looked at men. So what about the women? Does the birth
date theory hold for them? Well, world half-marathon champion Paula Radcliffe was
born on December 17 and that fits the bill pretty well, but Liz McColgan was born on
May 24, which doesn't at all. However, Kathy Cook, our top sprinter, fits the pattern as
she was born on May 3.
Paula Radcliffe 17/12
Liz McColgan 24/5
Jill Hunter 14/10
Wendy Sly 5/5
Angela Tooby 24/10
Yvonne Murray 4/10
Kathy Butler 22/10
Susan Tooby 24/10
Andrea Wallace 22/11
Susan Crehan 12/9
All but one appeared in the world between mid-September and mid-December.
Climate may be an influence; sedentary lifestyle
certainly is
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Here, then, are the birth dates for the current British women's
top 10 at 10,000m:
I am sure that physiological factors, such as the possession of slow-twitch and fasttwitch fibres are of much greater importance than birth dates. And then we come to
the question of genetic factors, which must surely play some part in determining the
physiological profile of an individual.
But in my studies of athletics I have seen that all types of athletes can come from the
wide range of racial types, and am concerned that writers such as Jon Entine appear
to have written-off the white races for distance running, while ignoring many of the
causes of this (PP 158 December 2001.)
I believe that socio-economic factors play a huge part in the fate of the men or women
who rise to the top, and the drastic decline in Western distance running is most
certainly not caused by genetic factors, but by the fact that our youngsters are much
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more sedentary than people of 20-30 years earlier, with the result that our top juniors
are running very much slower over 3000m and 5000m than they used to.
While the 'hungry fighters' from Africa and other impoverished parts of the world are
prepared to sacrifice their creature comforts for the dedicated hard work that is
needed to make a top distance runner, fewer from our society are prepared to do so.
But environment is surely important. For instance, distance runners are less likely to
develop if living in large towns, and I note that nearly all the top Spanish distance
runners in their recent resurgence have come from rural districts, and the East
Africans have the added bonus of high altitude.
Peter Matthews
The menopause: hormone replacement
therapy decreases the risk of heart disease &
bone loss & maintains muscle performance
The effect of HRT after the menopause
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) after menopause is widely believed to counteract
the increased risk of heart disease and bone loss which accompanies the loss of the
female sex hormones, particularly oestrogen. And now new research from Finland
suggests that HRT also plays a key role in maintaining post-menopausal muscle
performance, which is good news for women in general and female athletes in
particular. Even better is the implication that the benefits of HRT combined with highimpact physical training exceed those of either HRT or training alone.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
No distance runners are going to come from the hot and humid countries of West
Africa or even perhaps from the drier Caribbean. And just maybe, the climatic factors
before or after birth might, as indicated above, make some difference in the
temperate climes of Britain.
This one-year study of 80 women aged 50-57 is the first randomised double-blind
placebo-controlled trial - the gold standard of scientific research - to investigate the
effects of HRT on muscle performance and muscle mass. The women were assigned to
one of four groups: exercise; HRT; exercise-plus-HRT; and control.
The exercise groups embarked on a 12-month progressive physical training programme
that included a twice-weekly supervised circuit training session and a series of
exercises performed at home four times a week. The circuit training sessions varied,
but all included three or four of the following: resistance exercises for the upper body;
chest fly; latissimus pull down; military press; seated row; biceps curl. The home
exercise programme was also designed as a circuit training routine, including skipping,
hopping, drop jumping and exercises to strengthen the abdominal and lower back
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regions.
The control group took dummy tablets daily as did the exercise-only group, while the
women in the two non-exercise groups were told to continue their normal daily
routines without changing their physical activity levels.
Various measures of muscle performance and mass were taken before the start of the
study and at six and 12 months. By six months 18 of the original participants had
dropped out for a variety of reasons, leaving 62 spread across the four groups. By 12
months that number had been whittled down to 52. Key results were as follows:
Slight increases in vertical jumping height - an indication of muscle power production were seen in both the exercise and HRT groups after six and 12 months when
compared with the controls. But the differences were more marked in the exerciseplus-HRT group;
After 12 months, women in the HRT and exercise-plus-HRT groups showed increases in
the muscle mass of their quadriceps and lower leg in comparison with the exerciseonly and control groups. Again, the differences were most marked in the group
combining exercise with HRT.
'The independent effect of HRT on skeletal muscle mass and performance is probably
the most interesting finding in the present study,' comment the authors.
'The resultsÉ suggest that continuous administration of oestradiol/noretisterone
acetate [a combined HRT preparation] has beneficial effects on muscle performance,
muscle mass and muscle composition in early post-menopausal womenÉ The results
also suggest that the effects of HRT combined with high-impact physical training may
exceed those of the two treatments separately.'
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Over the course of the study lean body mass increased in all except the control group;
Women in the exercise and HRT groups showed an increase in maximal isometric knee
extension force after six months compared with the controls. But after 12 months of
follow-up, only the exercise-plus-HRT group differed significantly from the controls;
Clin Sci (Lond) 2001 Aug 101(2), pp 147-57
Isabel Walker
genetics | sports performance
Genetics and Performance: Now science is getting to the long and
the short of how genes influence performance
Scientists are slowly beginning to find the genes which play a direct role in
determining exercise capacity. Recently, researchers discovered - on human
chromosome No. 1 - the gene which encodes MCT1, a protein which helps transport
lactate into muscle cells. Variations in this gene will no doubt determine how well an
athlete can improve lactate threshold - a key predictor of endurance performance - in
response to strenuous physical training.
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To understand how variations in the ACE gene might influence the economy with which
you run, cycle, or swim, you first need to understand what angiotensin-converting
enzyme actually does. The angiotensin-converting-enzyme story begins with a plasma
protein called angiotensinogen, which is present in the blood of all human beings.
Under certain conditions, kidney cells secrete a hormone called renin into the blood
which cleaves a 10-amino-acid protein from angiotensinogen to form a compound
called angiotensin I. The various physiological roles played by angiotensin I are not
completely understood, but it is known that angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) can
knock two amino acids off angiotensin I to form a compound called angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II has a variety of functions, but for purposes of our discussion we can
simply say that it directly increases blood pressure by constricting arteries, and it
indirectly raises blood pressure and blood volume by stimulating thirst centres in the
brain and directing the kidneys to conserve more minerals and water.
The British scientists knew that there were two key variations in the ACE gene (the
one which codes for angiotensin-converting enzyme). One of these has an extra 287
base pairs within its DNA and is called the 'long allele'; the other is without the base
pairs and is the 'short allele'. All humans have two ACE genes; roughly 50 per cent of
the world's population has one copy of each variant, 25 per cent have two short genes,
and 25 per cent have the two long ones. Previous studies had shown that the long
allele seems to be linked with better endurance performance and a stronger response
to exercise training. For example, in one piece of research individuals with two copies
of the long allele gained more muscle mass and lost more body fat during 10 weeks of
intensive physical training, compared with athletes with two copies of the short gene
or one copy of each gene ('Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene Insertion/Deletion
Polymorphism and Response to Physical Training,' Lancet, vol. 353 (9152), pp. 541-545,
February 13, 1999).
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
ow, scientists at the Royal Defence Medical College and the Centre for Cardiovascular
Genetics in the UK have discovered that variations in the gene which encodes a
protein called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) can have a large impact on
exercise efficiency ('The ACE Gene and Muscle Performance,' Nature, vol. 403, p. 614,
10 February 2000).
The British researchers were not sure why that was the case, but they did know that
the long allele produces a version of angiotensin-converting enzyme which is 'weaker',
i. e., has lower activity, compared with the short gene. To gain a better understanding
of the long-gene's effects, they recruited 58 Caucasian military servicemen into their
study; 35 had two copies of the long version of the gene, and 23 possessed just the
short version. All 58 men underwent an 11-week programme of endurance exercise
consisting of interval training on an exercise bike.
Delta efficiency
Prior to and after the training period, the researchers calculated the 'delta efficiency'
of exercise for each subject. This variable is supposed to represent the efficiency with
which muscles are working, and it is basically the percentage ratio of the change in
work performed per minute to the change in energy expended per minute. Delta
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efficiency is not a bad way to measure one's economy of exercise; basically, it reflects
the fact that if you can increase your rate of working per minute (i. e., your muscular
power output) without a large upswing in energy expenditure, you are efficient; if
your energy consumption soars when you increase your running, cycling, or swimming
speed, you are inefficient. Before the training began, the delta efficiency was the
same for both groups of men (about 25 per cent). However, after training delta
efficiency improved by almost 9 per cent for exercisers with two copies of the long
ACE gene but remained stagnant in the short-ACE group.
At least some of this artery expansiveness is mediated by a chemical called nitric
oxide which is released by cells lining your arteries (these cells help make up the
'endothelium' - the inner layer of artery walls). Nitric oxide - 'discovered' by scientists
about 20 years ago and originally thought to be an intracellular 'messenger' - not only
dilates arteries but also prolongs vasodilation, keeping the good stuff flowing into your
muscle cells throughout your workout or race. Incidentally, nitric oxide's actions are so
powerful that nitric-oxide treatments reduce pulmonary vascular resistance in people
with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and are also thought to be helpful
in the treatment of atherosclerosis.
Train to release nitric oxide
Exercise training increases the production of nitric oxide by your endothelium, but
angiotensin II seems to decrease the rate at which nitric oxide is synthesized. Thus, we
have a potential mechanism underlying the long-ACE-gene's link with better endurance
performance. The long gene produces angiotensin-converting enzyme with lower
activity, which means that less angiotensin II will be produced. The lower angiotensin
II means that more nitric oxide can be synthesized inside artery walls during exercise,
leading to stronger blood flow to the muscles. In effect, the long ACE genes let
endurance-trained muscles have more blood.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
What was going on? Bear in mind that one of the key - but often overlooked adaptations you make to exercise training is in the responsiveness of your blood
vessels. After you have been exercising regularly for a couple of months, your blood
vessels relax more easily during exercise, increasing blood flow to your muscles. This
has some obvious advantages; the spiked blood flow can bring more oxygen and fuel to
your muscle fibres.
It's not clear yet why this effect would improve efficiency of exercise (it seems more
likely to raise VO2max and lactate threshold), unless the muscle cells most responsible
for efficient movement are better supplied by oxygen and fuel in individuals with the
longer ACE gene - and thus can work more continuously throughout a bout of exercise.
The exercise intensities utilized in the study were low (no higher than 80 Watts), so it's
possible that the combination of long ACE genes plus training opened up blood flow to
slow-twitch muscle cells in the exercisers' legs, allowing them to 'take over' the burden
of exercise (slow-twitch cells would be more efficient than fast twitchers at low
intensities of exertion). However, Dr. Hugh Montgomery, lead scientist in the study,
believes that another mechanism may be at work. Montgomery thinks that the long
ACE genes may have profound metabolic effects within the muscle cells, in addition to
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their influence on artery walls. Basically, he suggests that the long genes may improve
the efficiency of fuel selection, uptake, and utilization by muscle fibres during
exercise, thus enhancing economy.
Of course, many will wonder whether Kenyan runners have the long-ACE genes (but
probably won't speculate on how the Ethiopians were able to borrow those ACEs from
the Kenyans, or how the Kenyans picked up the genes from the Finns, who borrowed
them from the Brits, who took the alleles from earlier Finns, who got them from
Swedes, etc.). Before this kind of thinking goes too far, however, we should point out
that about 25 per cent of British and American citizens have double-long ACE genes,
which in the case of Americans would mean that almost three times as many
Americans hold double ACEs, compared to Kenyans, even if the entire Kenyan
population had only the extended genes!
It is clear that the research has implications which range beyond endurance exercise.
Drugs called 'ACE inhibitors' help cardiac cells survive heart attacks and also improve
survivorship in patients with heart troubles of various kinds by easing artery tightening
and perhaps in part by letting nitric oxide do its thing and improving the efficiency of
cardiac muscle-cell contractions. ACE inhibitors might also help increase the
mechanical and metabolic efficiency of muscles in individuals who for various reasons
are energy-deprived.
The ACE work is exciting stuff, uncovering not only the genetic but also the important
physiological foundations of exercise excellence. In our next issue, we'll provide you
with a review of what scientists actually know about the genetic underpinnings of
performance.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
The ACE of hearts
Before rushing out to your local exercise geneticist to find out if you have the long
version of ACE, bear in mind this caveat, however: so far, the efficiency improvement
has only been detected at very low exercise intensities; we don't know if it will hold
true at competitive speeds, too.
Owen Anderson
Genetics and Performance
Genetics And Performance: Now science is getting to the long
and the short of how genes influence performance
Scientists are slowly beginning to find the genes which play a direct role in
determining exercise capacity. Recently, researchers discovered - on human
chromosome No. 1 - the gene which encodes MCT1, a protein which helps transport
lactate into muscle cells. Variations in this gene will no doubt determine how well an
165
SOCCER ARTICALS
athlete can improve lactate threshold - a key predictor of endurance performance - in
response to strenuous physical training.
To understand how variations in the ACE gene might influence the economy with which
you run, cycle, or swim, you first need to understand what angiotensin-converting
enzyme actually does. The angiotensin-converting-enzyme story begins with a plasma
protein called angiotensinogen, which is present in the blood of all human beings.
Under certain conditions, kidney cells secrete a hormone called renin into the blood
which cleaves a 10-amino-acid protein from angiotensinogen to form a compound
called angiotensin I. The various physiological roles played by angiotensin I are not
completely understood, but it is known that angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) can
knock two amino acids off angiotensin I to form a compound called angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II has a variety of functions, but for purposes of our discussion we can
simply say that it directly increases blood pressure by constricting arteries, and it
indirectly raises blood pressure and blood volume by stimulating thirst centres in the
brain and directing the kidneys to conserve more minerals and water.
The British scientists knew that there were two key variations in the ACE gene (the
one which codes for angiotensin-converting enzyme). One of these has an extra 287
base pairs within its DNA and is called the 'long allele'; the other is without the base
pairs and is the 'short allele'. All humans have two ACE genes; roughly 50 per cent of
the world's population has one copy of each variant, 25 per cent have two short genes,
and 25 per cent have the two long ones. Previous studies had shown that the long
allele seems to be linked with better endurance performance and a stronger response
to exercise training. For example, in one piece of research individuals with two copies
of the long allele gained more muscle mass and lost more body fat during 10 weeks of
intensive physical training, compared with athletes with two copies of the short gene
or one copy of each gene ('Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene Insertion/Deletion
Polymorphism and Response to Physical Training,' Lancet, vol. 353 (9152), pp. 541-545,
February 13, 1999).
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Now, scientists at the Royal Defence Medical College and the Centre for
Cardiovascular Genetics in the UK have discovered that variations in the gene which
encodes a protein called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) can have a large impact
on exercise efficiency ('The ACE Gene and Muscle Performance,' Nature, vol. 403, p.
614, 10 February 2000).
The British researchers were not sure why that was the case, but they did know that
the long allele produces a version of angiotensin-converting enzyme which is 'weaker',
i. e., has lower activity, compared with the short gene. To gain a better understanding
of the long-gene's effects, they recruited 58 Caucasian military servicemen into their
study; 35 had two copies of the long version of the gene, and 23 possessed just the
short version. All 58 men underwent an 11-week programme of endurance exercise
consisting of interval training on an exercise bike.
Delta efficiency
Prior to and after the training period, the researchers calculated the 'delta efficiency'
of exercise for each subject. This variable is supposed to represent the efficiency with
which muscles are working, and it is basically the percentage ratio of the change in
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work performed per minute to the change in energy expended per minute. Delta
efficiency is not a bad way to measure one's economy of exercise; basically, it reflects
the fact that if you can increase your rate of working per minute (i. e., your muscular
power output) without a large upswing in energy expenditure, you are efficient; if
your energy consumption soars when you increase your running, cycling, or swimming
speed, you are inefficient. Before the training began, the delta efficiency was the
same for both groups of men (about 25 per cent). However, after training delta
efficiency improved by almost 9 per cent for exercisers with two copies of the long
ACE gene but remained stagnant in the short-ACE group.
At least some of this artery expansiveness is mediated by a chemical called nitric
oxide which is released by cells lining your arteries (these cells help make up the
'endothelium' - the inner layer of artery walls). Nitric oxide - 'discovered' by scientists
about 20 years ago and originally thought to be an intracellular 'messenger' - not only
dilates arteries but also prolongs vasodilation, keeping the good stuff flowing into your
muscle cells throughout your workout or race. Incidentally, nitric oxide's actions are so
powerful that nitric-oxide treatments reduce pulmonary vascular resistance in people
with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and are also thought to be helpful
in the treatment of atherosclerosis.
Train to release nitric oxide
Exercise training increases the production of nitric oxide by your endothelium, but
angiotensin II seems to decrease the rate at which nitric oxide is synthesized. Thus, we
have a potential mechanism underlying the long-ACE-gene's link with better endurance
performance. The long gene produces angiotensin-converting enzyme with lower
activity, which means that less angiotensin II will be produced. The lower angiotensin
II means that more nitric oxide can be synthesized inside artery walls during exercise,
leading to stronger blood flow to the muscles. In effect, the long ACE genes let
endurance-trained muscles have more blood.
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What was going on? Bear in mind that one of the key - but often overlooked adaptations you make to exercise training is in the responsiveness of your blood
vessels. After you have been exercising regularly for a couple of months, your blood
vessels relax more easily during exercise, increasing blood flow to your muscles. This
has some obvious advantages; the spiked blood flow can bring more oxygen and fuel to
your muscle fibres.
It's not clear yet why this effect would improve efficiency of exercise (it seems more
likely to raise VO2max and lactate threshold), unless the muscle cells most responsible
for efficient movement are better supplied by oxygen and fuel in individuals with the
longer ACE gene - and thus can work more continuously throughout a bout of exercise.
The exercise intensities utilized in the study were low (no higher than 80 Watts), so it's
possible that the combination of long ACE genes plus training opened up blood flow to
slow-twitch muscle cells in the exercisers' legs, allowing them to 'take over' the burden
of exercise (slow-twitch cells would be more efficient than fast twitchers at low
intensities of exertion). However, Dr. Hugh Montgomery, lead scientist in the study,
believes that another mechanism may be at work. Montgomery thinks that the long
ACE genes may have profound metabolic effects within the muscle cells, in addition to
their influence on artery walls. Basically, he suggests that the long genes may improve
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the efficiency of fuel selection, uptake, and utilization by muscle fibres during
exercise, thus enhancing economy.
Of course, many will wonder whether Kenyan runners have the long-ACE genes (but
probably won't speculate on how the Ethiopians were able to borrow those ACEs from
the Kenyans, or how the Kenyans picked up the genes from the Finns, who borrowed
them from the Brits, who took the alleles from earlier Finns, who got them from
Swedes, etc.). Before this kind of thinking goes too far, however, we should point out
that about 25 per cent of British and American citizens have double-long ACE genes,
which in the case of Americans would mean that almost three times as many
Americans hold double ACEs, compared to Kenyans, even if the entire Kenyan
population had only the extended genes!
It is clear that the research has implications which range beyond endurance exercise.
Drugs called 'ACE inhibitors' help cardiac cells survive heart attacks and also improve
survivorship in patients with heart troubles of various kinds by easing artery tightening
and perhaps in part by letting nitric oxide do its thing and improving the efficiency of
cardiac muscle-cell contractions. ACE inhibitors might also help increase the
mechanical and metabolic efficiency of muscles in individuals who for various reasons
are energy-deprived.
The ACE work is exciting stuff, uncovering not only the genetic but also the important
physiological foundations of exercise excellence. In our next issue, we'll provide you
with a review of what scientists actually know about the genetic underpinnings of
performance.
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The ACE of hearts
Before rushing out to your local exercise geneticist to find out if you have the long
version of ACE, bear in mind this caveat, however: so far, the efficiency improvement
has only been detected at very low exercise intensities; we don't know if it will hold
true at competitive speeds, too.
Owen Anderson
Strength training
Strength training reveals strange sex bias
A new US study of the effects of strength training on inactive men and women has
produced a fascinating and unexpected new finding: while training produced
significant increases in resting metabolic rate in young and older men, it had no effect
on the resting metabolism of women.
The study involved 46 physically inactive subjects divided into the following four
groups: young men (aged 20-30), young women, older men (65-75) and older women.
After testing of various parameters, including aerobic capacity, body composition and
resting metabolic rate (RMR), all the subjects took part in a whole body strength
training (ST) programme for three days per week for an average of 24 weeks, using
Keiser K-300 air-powered exercise equipment. They were then re-tested, with final
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Significant findings were as follows:
a. Each of the four groups increase fat-free mass (FFM) significantly in response to
training, with young subjects showing significantly greater increases than older ones,
but no apparent gender differences.
b. By contrast, changes in fat mass were affected by gender but not by age, with men
showing a significant reduction and women no change.
c. All groups showed significant increases in 1-M strength for all exercises, with
changes for chest press and leg press analysed separately for any effects of age and
gender. Combined young subjects increased 1-RM strength in the leg press more than
older subjects (31% v 23%). Young subjects increase chest press
1-RM strength significantly more than older subjects (28% v 16%) and men increased
significantly more than women.
d. Significant increases in absolute RMR (9%) were observed for both young and older
men but not for young and older women, despite similar increases in fat-free mass.
e. There was no change in energy expenditure of physical activity (EEPA - the other
major component of total energy expenditure apart from RMR) outside the ST sessions
for any of the groups.
'The results of this study show for the first time that changes in RMR in response to ST
is affected by gender and not by age,' the researchers report. 'Furthermore, when RMR
was corrected for [fat-free mass] there was still a significant gender effect, with men
having a ST-induced significant increase in RMR, whereas women still showed no
change.'
'In addition, contrary to what has been suggested previously, ST does not cause an
increase in EEPA outside of the training sessions in healthy, sedentary young and older
men and women.'
What can explain the clear gender difference in the impact of strength training on
resting metabolic rate? One possible explanation advanced by the researchers is
'differences in sympathetic nervous system activity responses to ST', which was not,
unfortunately, measured in the study.
Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001 Apr 33(4) p32-41
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results available for seven young men and women, 10 older men and eight older
women.
Isabel Walker
genetics and sports performance
Genetics And Performance: What research tells us about African
runners: are they really genetically more gifted?
Page 1 2
African runners are genetically superior to white runners. Compared to whites, blacks
are better suited for sports which involve short, explosive bursts of energy. Individuals
from West Africa 'make' good sprinters, while people from East Africa are endurance
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types..
Of course, believers in black 'super-genes' haven't been able to explain exactly how
Africans have managed to corner the market on superior genetic material. When the
Finns dominated the running world in the 1920s and again in the 1970s, no loud voices
proclaimed that Finnish runners were genetically superior. Instead we pondered the
merits of reindeer milk and called Lasse Viren a potential blood doper. When the Brits
dominated middle-distance running in the 1950s and 1980s, there was no talk about
brilliant British genetic material. Rather, we heard about British pluck and hard work.
And when the Chinese women ran wild in 1993, it was because they were drugged, not
because red-hot genetic material had fired up their performances. But now that
Africans are running wild, the genetics lessons begin. Somehow, Providence has chosen
to bless only African runners with top-quality DNA..
Opinions, not facts
It's time for a reality check. Although beliefs about genetic differences between
African and non-African runners are widely held, it's important to remember that
these beliefs are opinions - and nothing more. There's simply no scientific evidence to
support the idea that African runners are genetically superior to European, North
American, Asian, or South American athletes..
Why isn't there any evidence? At present, we don't even know WHICH genes are
necessary for topflight performances! Since we don't know which genes are important,
it's impossible to measure the relative frequencies of performance-enhancing genes in
different groups of athletes. In addition, as explained at the end of this article, the
available scientific research suggests that genetic factors are less important than nongenetic factors (including training and lifestyle) in determining performances..
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Those are strong statements. Many people believe them. And implicit in the
statements are two inferences that usually remain unstated: (1) If blacks are
physically exceptional, then they don't have to go through the mental turmoil of
constructing a rigorous training programme; they can just let their bodies work their
magic. (2) Whites are at a disadvantage. Since they're handicapped by bad genes, and
therefore by their anatomy and physiology, they will never be able to compete equally
with Africans..
Still, when Mr. Gebrselassie of Ethiopia rips through the 5K in a world-record 12:44 or
Mr. Kiptanui from Kenya slashes the 3000-metre steeplechase mark, the familiar
refrain begins again: Africans have the most slender upper bodies, the thinnest bones,
the most rail-thin calves, the most tent-like lungs and the most reservoir-like,
elephantine hearts - all because they have the optimal genetic make-ups. As a result,
we don't need to concern ourselves too much with how the Africans train, or how they
think about running, or what motivates them to run far ahead of everyone else. It's
enough to believe that they were born with a vast talent which places them head and
shoulders above the pack..
Why? Now ask them how?
Continuing to rely on the 'genetic explanation' for African superiority has negative
consequences. After Africans win the vast majority of distance medals at the Atlanta
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Olympics - as they inevitably will - and then return to their continent, anyone saying
that they won their hardware because of their genes is giving a huge insult to their
untiring work and relentless motivation. And summoning up the hocus-pocus of genetic
differences makes the running community less eager to actually learn something useful
from the top African runners. You've probably noticed that people aren't exactly
beating down the Africans' doors in order to understand how to train, even though the
Africans have blown the socks off runners from the rest of the world. Instead, we
continue to 'learn' from the same old coaches and gurus who have worked with and
trained runners considerably slower than the current crop of Africans..
What the research actually says
There are just three relevant studies in the scientific literature that have examined
physiological differences between Africans and non-Africans, and none of the three
actually looked specifically at gene quality. That's no surprise; since, as mentioned,
scientists don't actually know which genes code for endurance performance, they can't
possibly determine whether Africans have a lockhold on superior genetic material. We
don't know what 'superior genetic material' actually is..
So, instead of looking at actual genetic differences, scientists have made inferences
about genes based on the physiological differences which they detect between blacks
and whites. In a study carried out by Claude Bouchard and his group at Laval
University in Quebec, 23 black male students and 23 Caucasian male students were
compared. The black students hailed from Cameroon, Senegal, Zaire, the Ivory Coast
and Burundi (mainly, that is, from the western and central parts of Africa), while the
Caucasians were born in Canada and were of French descent. Both the Africans and
Caucasians had an average age of 25, weighed about 154 pounds and were about 5'9'
tall. All the students were sedentary at the time of the study..
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That's a bit strange. In the business world, we ask the top executives how they've
managed to make their companies so successful. In the medical field, we ask the very
best surgeons specific questions about their surgical techniques. But do we ask the
Africans for training information? Why is it so much more convenient to believe that
Africans have risen to the top because of inborn talent?
No gene frequencies were measured, but Bouchard found that both groups had the
same percentage (about 18 percent) of type IIb muscle fibres - the cells which are
critically important for sprinting (so much for the idea that western Africans have
muscles uniquely suited for high-speed running!). There were two key differences in
muscle composition between whites and blacks: Caucasians had a higher percentage of
type I cells (41 vs. 33 percent), while Africans checked in with more type IIa muscles
(49 vs. 42 percent). As you know, type I fibres are great for prolonged, moderatespeed endurance performance, as in an event like the marathon, while IIa cells
promote faster running times in shorter events like the 5K..
Although Africans had more IIa cells and fewer type I cells, we can't say that these
differences are genetically based. For one thing, studies show that muscle fibre type is
not tightly regulated by genes. Also, an individual's muscle-fibre composition can
change over time. IIb fibres can probably become IIa cells, and IIa cells may be able to
become type I fibres. Thus, it's impossible to say that the blacks' higher frequency of
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IIa fibres was a genetic thing..
The only other key difference between the Africans and Canadians was that blacks had
higher concentrations of 'anaerobic' muscle enzymes, which are chemicals that spur
the production of energy during short, intense running, whereas whites showed up
with greater levels of 'aerobic' enzymes needed for continuous, endurance exercise.
Again, there's no reason to conclude that these physiological differences are caused by
genetic differences. The increased anaerobic-enzyme density in blacks might have
simply been the result of their higher frequency of IIa cells..
What Tim Noakes found..
In a separate study carried out several years ago, Tim Noakes and his colleagues at the
University of Capetown compared elite black vs. elite white South-African runners.
Although both groups had similar 5-K times (about 13:45), the blacks were
considerably faster in 10-K and half-marathon races. VO2max, running economy,
maximal running velocity, training mileage and the percentage of type I muscle cells
were exactly the same in the two groups, but there were some differences: (1) blacks
ate more calories and carbohydrate per pound of body weight, compared to whites,
(2) blacks trained considerably faster than whites, (3) blacks produced less lactate
while running at race speeds, and (4) blacks were quite a bit shorter than whites (5'6'
vs. 5'11') and weighed less (123 vs. 154 pounds)..
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The Laval scientists concluded that 'black individuals are, in terms of skeletal muscle
characteristics, well endowed for sport events of short duration'. That's a somewhat
shaky conclusion, since blacks and whites had exactly the same concentrations of IIb
cells, the ones which are critical for sprinting, although it was true that blacks had
higher amounts of anaerobic enzymes. As mentioned, it was impossible to say why the
blacks' muscles were more tilted toward IIa fibres and away from type I cells. It might
have been genetics, but it might have been the result of lifestyle, too..
Note that only point four can be firmly pinned to genetics. Body height - although
influenced by the environment - is fairly strongly determined by genes, and body
weight tends to follow from height. Eating more calories and carbohydrate (point 1) is
a lifestyle factor. Running at higher training speeds (point 2) often is part of an overall
training philosophy that emphasises intensity rather than volume and is not necessarily
coupled with a particular genetic constitution. Producing less lactate while running at
high velocities (point 3) might simply be a long-term result of the more intense
training carried out by blacks. Overall, Noakes' work provided no solid evidence that
blacks were genetically different from whites
genetics in sport
What research tells us about African runners: are they really
genetically more gifted?
Page 1 2
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...and Bengt Saltin
The most revealing study on this topic was carried out by the renowned Swedish
exercise physiologist, Bengt Saltin, who compared sedentary adolescent Kenyans,
Kenyan high school runners and elite Kenyan runners with top-level Scandinavian
runners. Saltin unearthed a number of important facts. First, relatively sedentary
adolescent Kenyans had exactly the same aerobic capacities as sedentary Danish
teenagers. If the Kenyans were really genetically superior, you would expect them to
have higher VO2maxs than their Scandinavian counterparts (unless their 'superhuman'
genes only revealed themselves in response to training).
Third, and following directly from point two, Kenyan runners - including the high
schoolers - were more economical than the elite Scandinavians and also produced less
lactate during high-speed running. This makes sense: one of the best ways to boost
economy is to train fast, and the Kenyans have the corner on intense training. Also,
fast training boosts the aerobic qualities of fast-twitch, type IIa muscle cells and
lowers their lactate output, which probably explains why the Kenyans have lower
lactate levels during strenuous running. Since high lactates are associated with
fatigue, that's a very good thing!
The fourth finding - a critical one for our discussion of whether the Kenyans have a
genetic edge - was that sedentary adolescent Kenyans had VO2max readings of 47 (the
same as Scandinavians), very active (but non-training) Kenyan teenagers had VO2maxs
of about 62, and seriously training high school Kenyan runners checked in with average
VO2maxs of 65 to 68. Senior elite Kenyan runners have had their VO2max levels
measured at 75 to 85. This progression in aerobic capacities from the mid-40s to high70s and low-80s is exactly the same as the one observed in Americans (sedentary
American youth have VO2max values in the 40s, while topflight runners like Salazar,
Ryun, and Prefontaine were in the high 70s and low- to mid-80s). The progression in
VO2max values is the same in Kenyans as it is in Americans! In addition, as high school
Kenyans become elite senior runners, they increase their number of blood vessels per
muscle cell and also enhance the concentrations of energy-producing aerobic enzymes
inside their muscle cells. Those are natural responses to hard training and aren't
necessarily caused by superior genes.
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Second, young Kenyan runners trained with astonishing intensity: About 50 to 60
percent of their total mileage was done at heart rates of 90 percent of maximum or
higher! This was significantly higher than the Scandinavians' total and is much higher
than anything European and American runners do generally.
Calling all Kalenjins
Proponents of the genetic theory often point out that of the more than 35 tribal
groups in Kenya, a single tribe - the Kalenjins - has produced most of the great runners
(Lelei, Loroupe, Kiptanui, Keino, Kiprotich, Cheromei, Sang, Rono, etc.). The Kalenjins
were traditionally a pastoral people who roamed the beautiful Rift Valley of Kenya
with their cattle, so one might argue that genes which enhanced the ability to move
long distances were 'selected' over evolutionary time. In contrast, members of another
large Kenyan tribe, the Luo, have traditionally fished for a living and have produced
few top runners..
However, political and social forces inside the country tend to favour the development
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So what's the real reason?
If genes aren't responsible, what accounts for the difference between African and nonAfrican running? The African approach to training differs from the American-European
method in a number of ways, including intensity (Africans usually train more intensely
but with less mileage), the amount of hill training (there's no comparison here; the
Africans are almost always working on hills), periodisation (Africans vary their training
more - favouring big upswings and then gentle troughs; in fact, many Africans take a
month or two away from running while their American and European peers continue to
plug away without a break), and diet (Africans eat more carbohydrate, less protein,
and less fat). Africans also benefit from a decade-long 'base' period - just running back
and forth to junior school at moderate speeds - before they take up serious running,
while Americans and Europeans tend to simply plunge into competition in more senior
school without a prolonged, strength-boosting build-up..
Many of these factors have already been studied in scientific settings. We know that
intensity is the most potent producer of fitness, yet American and European runners
still preach the merits of high mileage. We know that hill training is better than flatground running, yet American and European runners often limit hill work to once a
week. We know that the African diet is more conducive to elite performances, yet
American and European runners continue to edge toward more protein and fat..
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of Kalenjins at the expense of other tribes. In spite of this, the recent trend in Kenyan
running has been for non-Kalenjins (Ndeti, Kamau, Kinuthia, Masya, Osano, Asiago,
Osoro, Karori, etc.) to become more prominent as time goes by, rather than for
Kalenjins to increase their dominance. Most notably, the Kikuyu tribe, always a fine
source of running talent (five-time world champion John Ngugi is Kikuyu), is beginning
to produce more and more excellent runners, even though the Kikuyus have not
interbred with Kalenjins and historically were not a nomadic people. In fact, running
talent may be fairly equally distributed among Kenya's tribes. In other words, the
Kalenjin-genetic hypothesis weakens once you take a closer look at what's really going
on. How could so many different groups of non-interbreeding people produce top
runners, if genetic factors were really the paramount factor?
In addition, our book on periodisation - how to structure training over rather prolonged
periods of time in order to produce the best-possible performances - is still empty, or rather - it's filled with lots of theory and little hard data, so it's perhaps in this area
that the Africans can be our pragmatic teachers. It's clear that the African pattern of
very hard work followed by very thorough rest fits better with human physiology than
the American and European scheme of hard work - and then more hard work. The
human body always reaches optimal functioning more readily when stress is combined
with recovery, rather than when stress is continuously kept at a taxing level..
The bottom line?
Rather than speculating about superior genes, let's ask world champions like Mr.
Tergat and Ms. Tulu what they are doing in January, March, July and September, and
throughout the whole year. Chances are good that we'll pick up some useful
information from them. Let's face it, there's no evidence that Africans have a lock on
the genes needed for world-record running performances. After all, we don't even
know what those genes are, and (as the following note explains) most research has
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suggested that training and lifestyle - not genetic factors - account for more of the
variation in athletic performances. So let's give the Africans credit for earning their
world-beating performances. And let's learn from them about how to perform at the
best-possible level..
Research footnote
Could geneticists ever demonstrate convincingly that Kenyans are genetically superior?
Of course! They would simply have to identify the genes which are important for
endurance performance and show that those genes are more prevalent in Kenyan
runners..
In the meantime, we might try to look at genetic differences indirectly - by examining
physiological differences between Kenyans and non-Kenyans and then making
inferences about genetics. For example, we might compare Kenyan and American fiveyear-olds, before either group has had a chance to do any training (even a smattering
of training might make one group look better than the other). If we found no
physiological differences, it would appear that the Kenyans did not enjoy an inherent
genetic advantage..
However, even if the Kenyans were fitter, it would be hard to argue convincingly that
the difference was genetic. After all, the Kenyan kids would probably eat differently
than the Americans (fruits and vegetables versus Snickers bars), their everyday activity
patterns would be different (Kenyans would gather wood and haul water while
Americans would watch the box), and many of the Kenyan youngsters would probably
be residing at altitude. All of these factors - diet, habitual activity and altitude
residence - can have a strong impact on physiology, so the Kenyan kids' edge might
have nothing to do with genetics..
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This can't be done at present. We simply don't know which genes are critical for
enhancing performance, so we can't measure their frequencies in Kenyans, Americans,
Slovenians, Siberians, or anyone else. Identification of such genes will probably
happen, but not for another five to 10 years at least..
How about training previously sedentary groups of Kenyans and Americans of various
ages and then observing their responses to training? Of course, we would try to make
everything as similar as possible: Americans and Kenyans would have the same training
history and be the same weight, height, age, etc. If the Kenyans improved by 30
percent in response to our training programme while the Americans went up by only 15
percent, wouldn't that show that Kenyans had special genes which boosted their
responsiveness to training?
Well, no. Again, the Kenyan difference might simply be due to prior lifestyle factors
such as diet, altitude, daily activity, etc. The bottom line is that you can't look at
Kenyan world-beating performances and say 'Aha! It's genetic!' Too many other factors
can account for performance differences. As the great geneticist Claude Bouchard,
Ph.D., says: 'There's currently no evidence that the Kenyans are genetically superior.'
Owen Anderson
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Olympics Sex test
Olympics Sex Test: Why the Olympic sex test is outmoded,
unnecessary and even harmful.
At the Olympic Games in Atlanta, about 3,500 women athletes had to undergo a
diagnostic procedure that most medical authorities have characterised as misleading
and unnecessary: a sex test aimed at verifying that they are not males masquerading
as females. The aim, obviously, is to ensure that males, with their naturally androgenenhanced muscular strength, don't compete against females in women-only contests.
But most medical experts say that the test is far more likely to bar unfairly from
competition women with genetic abnormalities that confer no such advantages.
The only well-documented case of a male impostor competing against women in the
modern Olympics involved a German athlete named Hermann Ratjen, who bound up
his genitals, assumed the name 'Dora' and competed in the high jump in the 1936
Olympics. The deception wasn't discovered until 1955, when Ratjen, who came fourth
in the event, blamed the deception on Nazi officials.
Sex testing was introduced in competitive sports in the mid-1960s, amid rumour that
some competitors in women's events were not truly female - especially two Soviet
sisters who won gold medals at the 1960 and 1964 Olympics, and who abruptly retired
when gender verification testing began.
The first tests, at the European Championships in 1966 and the Pan-American Games in
1967, required female competitors to undress before a panel of doctors. Other
methods used during this period included manual examination or close-up scrutiny of
the athlete's genital region.
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Sex testing was hardly an issue in early Olympic Games when the competitors, all men,
walked naked through the gates. But doubts about the gender of participants in
women's events occasionally arose after the games were opened to women in 1912.
When athletes complained that these tests were degrading, the IOC at the Mexico City
Olympics in 1968 introduced genetic testing in the form of a sex chromatin (Barr body)
analysis of cells from a buccal smear. The procedure was further modified at the
Barcelona games, using the polymerase chain reaction to amplify the DNA extracted
from a specimen to allow detection of a Y chromosome gene, SRY, that codes for male
determination.
While this procedure was far less humiliating for competitors, geneticists and other
experts argued that the test is pointless at best and has the potential for causing great
psychological harm to women who, sometimes unknowingly, have certain disorders of
sexual differentiation. Published data suggest that test results for about 1 in 500-600
athletes are abnormal and could result in their disqualification, says Dr James C.
Puffer, of the University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, who served as
the chief medical officer for the 1968 US Olympic team.
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In Puffer's opinion, continuing to require gender verification is ill-advised because it is
no longer needed to achieve its original purpose of detecting male impostors. Why?
Because of the revealing, body-sculpting apparel worn by modern athletes. 'There's no
way with today's spandex uniforms that someone would mistake a male masquerading
as a female.' Athletes also know they are subject to doping tests, which require them
to urinate under the watchful eye of an official (all winners are tested, as well as a
random selection of other competitors). 'So, from a practical standpoint, it would
seem that gender tests are totally unnecessary,' Puffer says. That was the conclusion
reached by the IAAF when it abolished sex tests in 1992.
(Journal of the American Medical Association, July 17, 1996, vol. 276, no. 3, pp. 177178)
Heredity, genes and sports performance
Heredity, Genes And Sports Performance: Dad, mum and you how much do your genes really influence your performances?
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
According to Puffer, there are a number of disorders of sexual differentiation where
an individual has a genetic make-up but is female for all intents and purposes. 'Each
case is very complex,' he says, 'and needs to be handled with the utmost sensitivity
because of the issues involved.'
A case in point is the condition called androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) or
testicular feminisation, which experts estimate affects about 1 in 500-600 female
athletes. Although such individuals are genetically male because they have both an X
and a Y chromosome, their tissues cannot respond to androgens and they develop as
women. The irony is that the tests would not identify women with medical conditions
that, in theory, might give them a competitive advantage over 'normal' women, such
as congenital adrenal hyperplasia and androgen-secreting tumours that could result in
greater muscle mass.
When Nick's friends asked him to take part in a casual Saturday afternoon game of
soccer, he didn't realize that kicking a ball around on a muddy field would change his
life. But as he chased after that damned ball, while his leg muscles cried out in pain
and his lungs heaved like circus tents in a storm, Nick realized that his body had gone
all to hell - after just a few short years of scoffing up thick slices of Yorkshire pudding
and slugging down pints of ale each night after work.
In the locker room after the game, Nick peered at his paunch, glared at his lardy
shoulders, stole quick glances at his varicosed legs, and decided that maybe it was
time to .... well .... do something. He wasn't sure exactly WHAT to do, and he
wondered whether his preoccupation with his flabby belly was little more than bathos
in the bathhouse, but gradually he developed a firm resolve to 'shape up'. By the next
evening, he had purchased a nifty set of running shoes.
And Nick was not the kind of fellow to do things by halves. Just as he had eaten,
imbibed, and lazed around really earnestly over the years, he began his new, fitter life
by training with the steadfastness of a monk. Flab fell from his abdomen, muscles
burst from his buttocks, sinews sprouted from his thighs, and his lungs expanded and
deflated in a more relaxed manner as he cruised through his daily runs.
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Nick even began to enter races, and his 10-K times improved steadily. His first
competition took 47 minutes, but soon he was at 46 minutes, then 45, made a big
breakthrough to 42, and - after a year of hard training - broke the magical 40-minute
barrier with a euphoric 39:55. Soon he was running in the 39s regularly, and he even
surged through a sizzling 38:30 one beautiful autumn day.
Now, Nick had entertained thoughts of running 10 kilometres in 35 minutes, and - if
the truth be told - he had even had a secret longing which grew stronger each time he
set a new PB. His hope was that he might be one of the lucky ones - someone to watch
out for at races, someone who could be an elite athlete and actually win prize money
from the sport. Since all of those hopes were now dashed, Nick did the only thing he
could do. He began to blame his mum and dad.
Poor old mum, hobbling down the street to the market, and dad, puffing on his blasted
pipe and reading the paper at the fireside, why hadn't they given him more of the
right stuff? Why hadn't mum done more training as a schoolgirl, taken up marathon
running as a young woman, set age-group records after menopause, and encouraged
Nick to be more active? Why hadn't dad chucked away his god-awful pipe? Surely that
foul device had clogged Nick' s lungs with smoke as a child, thwarting his aerobic
development.
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What happened next?
But then, sadly, the improvements in performance stopped. Nick waited, and trained,
and raced, and waited some more, but when not a single additional second dropped
from his race times, he began to fiddle with his training, added more speed work,
carried out hill repetitions, took up weight training, bought books about Olympic
athletes, and even went to Kenya on holiday in hopes of adding some East-African
speed to his legs. The result? He continued to run his races in his usual 38s and 39s.
Nick began to face the hard truth - that he just wasn't going to improve any further.
A chip off a bad block?
Nick continued to resent his parents' poor influences for some time, but then one day
at a race in London, Nick - for no apparent reason at all - decided to line up with the
elite runners at the starting line. If he couldn't run a great 10K, he wanted to at least
feel what it was like to rub shoulders with the great runners. As he stared at the slim
bodies and determined faces next to him, he had a sudden realization: all of the
parental training and coaching in the world would not have helped him. He was stuck
in bad stock: his parents had simply not given him the genes of a Gebrselassie or a
Kiptanui. In fact, Nick' s soul - the soul of a running fanatic - was trapped in the body
of a greengrocer. Nick returned to the middle of the pack of runners with a horrible
realization: great athletes are born - not made.
But was he right? Is it true that the most important thing an aspiring athlete can do is
to choose the right parents, as the great Swedish exercise physiologist Per-Olof
Astrand once claimed?
Actually, no. Although athletic performance is influenced by genetics, scientific
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investigations have frequently found that it's even more dramatically shaped by
training and motivation, not genes.
However, if genes are important, identical twins should respond in a very similar
fashion. If one member of a set of twins boosts maximal aerobic capacity (V02max) by
35 per cent, for example, the other should also raise aerobic power by about 35 per
cent. If one twin lifts V02max by 10 per cent, his identical twin should also get about a
I O-per cent gain. If performance is highly 'heritable,' eg, it can be passed on readily in
genetic material, we would expect that identical twins would almost always respond
to training in the same way.
On the other hand, if identical twins develop quite different performance capacities,
it would be hard to argue that genes play a major role in determining the response to
training. For example, if one twin gains 50 per cent and his identical twin increases
aerobic capacity by only 10 per cent, we can figure that something other than genes is
determining their performances. After all, their genes are identical, but their
responses to training are quite different.
One person in 50 has a twin
Scientists interested in the genetics of performance are no slouches, so they usually
include both 'monozygotic' and 'dizygotic' twins in their studies, as well as brothers and
sisters. Somewhat surprisingly, it' s not hard to find twins for these studies. Although
many people think that twinning is a fairly rare event, the truth is that about one out
of every 100 births involves twins, which means that one person in 50 has a twin.
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Looking at identical twins
Not surprisingly, many of these studies have focussed on what happens when twins
embark on an exercise programme. The reason for using twins in the performance
research is simple: if both twins and people plucked at random from the street begin a
serious exercise programme, there will be a huge variation in response. Some
individuals will improve their aerobic capacities by 50-60 per cent or more, others will
achieve a more-usual gain of 20-30 per cent, and a few unfortunates will get an
aerobic uptick of less than per cent.
About 33 per cent of all twin pairs are identical (monozygotic), which means that they
originated from exactly the same sperm-egg combination and have precisely the same
genotype (their genetic constitutions are identical). On the other hand dizygotic
(fraternal) twins, although born at the same time, come from different sperm-egg
combos and are no more closely related genetically than 'normal' siblings. Dizygotic
twins, brothers, and sisters share about 50 per cent of the same genes.
As a result, if genes really do determine performance, we wouldn't expect dizygotic
twins and siblings to respond to training as identically as identical twins. However,
fraternal twins and sibs should be more similar than people chosen at random from the
overall population. To put it another way, monozygotic twins should have almost the
same 10-K times, as long as their training is similar, dizygotic twins and siblings might
have 10-K times a few minutes apart, and people chosen at random might have times
ranging from 26:44 (the current world record) all the way up to 55-60 minutes. The
less close the genetic relationship, the wider the variation.
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The research results
So what have scientific studies actually found? Much of the best work has been carried
out by Claude Bouchard, Ph.D., and his colleagues at Laval University in Quebec,
Canada. In the early 1980s, Bouchard and co-workers decided to find out just how
much variation in fitness could be present in a group of people who were training in a
fairly similar manner. The goal was to eventually determine what portion of this
variation was due to genetic factors and what portion was due to non-genetic
influences such as nutrition, smoking habits, past exercise habits, age, socioeconomic
status, etc.
In one of the first studies, 24 similar, initially sedentary subjects trained in exactly the
same manner for 20 weeks. Although the training was identical, the people responded
to training in disparate ways. Although the average gain in V02max was 33 per cent,
one individual had gained 88 per cent, while another had increased aerobic capacity
by only 5 per, cent - with exactly the same training programme!
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Bear in mind, though, that we can't determine how much of any single person's
performance is determined by genes, but we can assess how much of the VARIATION in
performance within a group of people is attributable to genes. In other words, we
can't tell Nick that, say, 40 per cent of his 10-K improvement from 47 to 38 minutes
was the result of the DNA piloting his cells while the other 60 per cent resulted from
his training, but we can estimate that 40 per cent of the variation in performance
times in a population is due to genetic differences between members of the
population. That's not very precise or individualised, but it does give us an indication
of how important genes are in deciding what happens when people get serious about
training. If 80 per cent of the variation was due to genetic factors, for example, we
could sensibly conclude that the effects of genes far outweigh the effects of actual
training.
Variation in actual performance, which was measured as the average power output a
subject could sustain on a bicycle for 90 minutes, was also sizeable. Overall,
performance soared by an average of 51 per cent after 20 weeks, and the biggest
gainer was an individual who improved performance by 97 per cent, while the smallest
improvement was made by a sad sack who advanced by just 16 per cent (less than 1
per cent per week).
These and later findings taught the Laval scientists that there are 'responders' and
'non-responders' within any population of people. The 'responders' make big
improvements in aerobic power and performance as a result of their training, while
the non-responders barely emerge from their sedentary physiological states, even
after 20 weeks of vigorous work. Exercise scientists reckon that about 5 per cent of
people in the population at large are high responders (they can improve by over 60 per
cent), while about the same per centage are low responders (they improve by less
than 5 per cent).
Are you a 'late bloomer'?
The Laval researchers also found that the time scale of training responsiveness varies a
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lot between people. Some are much better after just four to six weeks of training but
may not improve after that, while others - the 'late bloomers' - are stagnant for six to
10 weeks and then really take off, improving their aerobic capacities by 20-25 per cent
after 10 additional weeks of training.
Identical twins respond identically
The most important finding, however, was that identical twins did in fact respond
almost identically to the training programme. For example, one twin upgraded
V02max by 10 per cent, while his identical twin improved by 11 per cent. Another
gained 16 per cent while his twin settled for 14 per cent. Yet a third pair rested at 25
and 22 per cent. Overall, most of the variation in V02max was between, not within,
sets of twins.
However, this does NOT mean that genetics are the most important factor which
determines performance. All the twin studies demonstrate is that genes are
important; they do influence the way people respond to training. They don' t tell us
that genes are more important than training and other factors. We only know that
genes do play some role and that identical twins will be more alike than dizygotic
twins and siblings, who in turn will be more alike than non- ' related people. That's
hardly earth-shaking news.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
How significant are genes in determining responsiveness and in deciding if you're a
responder, a non-responder, a quick responder, or a late bloomer? To check that out,
the Laval investigators placed 10 pairs of monozygotic (identical) twins on a 20-week
training programme. The 20 subjects trained four to five times a week, 40-45 minutes
per session, with average training intensity set at about 80 per cent of maximal heart
rate. After 20 weeks, aerobic power burgeoned by 14 per cent, and 'ventilatory
threshold' ;L - the exercise intensity at which breathing rate begins to increase fairly
dramatically - improved by 17 per cent.
And, in fact the twin research offers some 'twists' which suggest that genes play a
'supporting' - but not 'lead' - role on the performance stage. For example, 82 per cent
of the variation in V02max in the Laval twin study was due to genetic differences, but
only 33 per cent of the difference in ventilatory threshold was attributable to genes.
Somehow, genes were playing a strong role in setting aerobic capacity, but the
environment (lifestyle factors and past differences in training) was considerably more
important in fixing ventilatory threshold. That' s a key finding, since ventilatory
threshold - and a closely related variable called lactate threshold - are often found to
be the best predictors of actual endurance performance, better than aerobic capacity,
anaerobic power, or efficiency of movement.
Married couples are equally similar
And there are other findings which put a dent in the idea that genes are paramount in
shaping performance capability. For example, the Laval researchers found that
spouses were as similar in their response to training as were brothers and sisters, even
though the spouses were totally unrelated genetically. In other words, if Joe and Jean
are married and begin training with Joe's brother John, Joe's gain in V02max is just as
likely to be the same as Jean'.s as it is the same as John's! That' s hardly a ringing
endorsement of the idea that genes play the crucial role in determining performance.
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In general, studies carried out with brothers and sisters suggest that genes explain
only 20 per cent of the variation in observed performances. Training and lifestyle
account for the other 80 per cent - or four times as much!
In addition, investigations which put mothers and their children on a training schedule
have found that genetics explain just 28 per cent of the variation in V02max, even
though a mum and her offspring share about 50 per cent of the same genes. That
means that 72 per cent of the variation is due to training and other factors.
Why mother is best
Again, these findings hardly support the idea that great athletes are born, not made.
But let's digress for a moment and consider why your mum is more important than your
dad in determining how you'll turn out as an endurance athlete. The answer to this
question rests inside tiny structures inside muscle cells called mitochondria, which
provide most of the energy required for your endurance performances. The little
mitochondria have their own genes, and all of the mitochondria in your body come
from your mother, not from your dad, because your mum's egg contained
mitochondria, while your father's penetrating sperm was mitochondria-free. As your
foetal cells divided and formed muscle, nerve, and bone cells, they took with them
mum's mitochondria. If she gave you good little mitochondria, you have a decent
chance of becoming an endurance athlete; dad's mitochondria just don't count.
As you've guessed by now, genetics don't play the dominant role in producing top-level
performances, but in addition to mother's mitochondria, there are some anatomical
and physiological attributes which are highly heritable - and which can help you get to
the finish line of a race more quickly. For example, your heart's 'coronary network'
(the distribution and size of blood vessels within your heart) is genetically determined,
as is the branching pattern of blood vessels which lead into your lungs. Total heart size
is mildly heritable, and the volume of the heart's left ventricle - the key internal
chamber which sends blood to your muscles - may be strongly determined by genes.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
Sorry, dads, but the news is even worse for you. Investigations of fathers and their
children have been unable to suggest that genetics plays any role at all in explaining
variation in aerobic capacity, even though dad and son/daughter are 50-per cent alike!
In other words, a father and his son are no more likely to respond to training in a
similar manner than are two people selected at random on the street.
Muscle proteins, including key energy-producing enzymes, are also dictated by genes,
as is muscle-fibre composition. If your mother and father had a high percentage of
Type I muscle cells (the kind which have excellent aerobic potentials and promote
superior endurance), your legs will probably also be biassed toward Type I cells, and
you'll probably be a pretty decent marathoner. In fact, some studies have shown that
muscle composition - or more specifically, the percentage of Type I fibres - can
explain up to 90 per cent of the variation in race times observed during the 26.2-mile
race. Metabolism of fat is also at least partially genetically determined.
However, the bottom line is that your genetic endowment is really just the stage upon
which your training, nutrition, and motivation act out their important roles and
produce your ultimate performances. Even mum's mitochondria and the genes which
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control heart size, muscle composition, and fat metabolism are only up to explaining
about 30 per cent of the variation in performances in Great Britain, the United States,
Timbuktu, and any where else. The rest of the variation - about 70 per cent - is due to
the environment, e.g., training and lifestyle factors.
SOCCER ARTICALS | FOOT BALL
So, the next time you line up at the start of a race, remember that genes have indeed
played a role in determining how long it will take you to get to the finish line but that
your training and nutritional practices have had an even larger impact! That's good
news, because it means that your destiny as an endurance athlete is to a great extent
under your own control.
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