 Short Write:
 What are the advantages and
disadvantages of instituting the Tanzimat
reforms (150 - 200 words)
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Homework:
Research and respond to the following:
Assess the contribution of the Ottoman
Empire in the outbreak of the Crimean War
Markscheme/ Former Test Questions:
Generally: Why did this all happen?
Student investigatory focus: Classify all evidence responding to the following topic
questions:
To what extent were communal tensions responsible for the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War of
1860?
Assess the significance of religious tensions in creating instability in Lebanon which led to Civil War
in 1860?
To what extent did Lebanon achieve autonomy as a consequence of the 1861 Settlement?
Analyze the nature and extent of internal and external conflicts confronting Lebanon in the postCivil War period.
To what extent were tensions which led to the Lebanese Civil War in 1860 resolved by the conflict
itself and the settlement which followed?
Focus:
Levels of Ottoman control
Communal Tensions and Civil War (1860)
Extent of autonomy after 1860
Ottoman Empire
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Who will fill the political power vacuum?
The Players:
Ottoman Empire
Druze
Sunni
Shia
Christian (Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Greek
Catholic)
* (as well as, Jews – though not powerful enough to
be reckoned with)
Sunni Shia division:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQdhmsw-hvc
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1860:
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On 9th of July, 1860, a mainly Druze mob of
20,000-50,000 from the Mydan, and Salheya
districts of Damascus attacked, killed and
pillaged the Christian Quarter and its
inhabitants.
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Religious groups/enclaves within unique
landscape
Economic disparity between peasants and
landlords (Maronite vs Druze)
Political misrule/weakness of the declining
and ever aggressed Ottoman Empire (still
reeling from the Crimean War, Ali Pasha’s
territorial ambitions
Desire for western intervention
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Economic
Religious
Political
Social
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Influence of the Ottomans loosely governing
province of Syria (with its Lebanese citizens)
British predatorial imperialism
French predatorial imperialism
Meddlesome foreign interests (GB, FR,
Russia)
Sought trade and natural resource access
Russian imperial containment

(i) remember the name of the country, the name of the Empire of
which it was a part (Mount Lebanon; Ottoman Empire);

(ii) remember the date of the civil war (1860);
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(iii) remember the name of the settlement that concluded it.
(iv) remember that Lebanese society was made up of 5 religious
groups:
 Druze, Maronite Christians, Sunni and Shia Muslims.
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(v) You must also be able to say something about the elements in
Lebanese society which allowed for these groups to live peacefully
together.

(vi) You must be able to say something about the influence of external
powers on Lebanon.

In 19th century, Lebanon was a part of Greater Syria, which
included Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan, all of which was
itself a part of the Ottoman Empire, but which had achieved
some autonomy from the Ottoman Empire.

In 1800, within Greater Syria, about a quarter of a million
people lived in the area known as Mount Lebanon.

This area consisted mainly of the mountainous regions. It was
where religious dissidents went to get away from central
power. They had developed ways in which to live together quite
harmoniously

It was governed by what has been called ‘the politics of the
notables’ – intermediaries between the locals, and the
Ottoman governor and Istanbul.

Essentially, the various ways in which political power
was enacted was a main cause of the rebellion in the
Ottoman Empire.
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Simply put, governments and territorial
mismanagement, just as in the Mediterranean Empires
preceding it, fostered fragmentation

Thus, the Lebanese Civil War exemplifies and
compounds understanding of the causes for Ottoman
decline.
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Lebanese Civil War is microcosm of reasons for decline
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The Tanzimat reforms, such as the Imperial
Rescript – inspired by regular proximity to
European Powers and desire to modernize
(despite secularization) with alternate
agendas (also referred to as “ulterior
motives”) eroded the political force of “the
notables.”
Thus, local power brokers lose legitimacy and
control
(CLUE: the various ways in which political
power was enacted was a main cause of the
rebellion in the Ottoman Empire. Simply put,
governments and territorial mismanagement,
just as in the Mediterranean Empires preceding
it, fostered fragmentation)

Thus, the Lebanese Civil War exemplifies and
compounds understanding of the causes for
Ottoman decline
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Tanzimat Reforms (particularly Land Code of 1858)
Rise of Maronite economic and political power
- take advantage of and favored by European business
interests
- alliance with Syrian governor – Emir Bashir II (Shihab)
- Druze political power declines
Syrian factionalism
- Jumblatt faction (Druze)
- Shihab faction (Christian Maronite)
Maronite migration into Druze regions
“Notable” Druze (Jumblatt) vs. Syrian Governor (Emir
Bashir – friend of the Maronites)
Why, based on the aforementioned do you think that the
Syrian governor developed ties with the Maronites?
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Since 1820s, Maronite and Druze undergo
violent conflict
Bashir sides with Marnites and suppresses
Druze
Druze become formidable adversaries to
Bashir’s authority
Bashir allies with Ibrahim Pasha (seeker of
Syrian governance as directed by father –
Muhammad Ali)
Bashir rules under protection of French
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Economic disparity due to Maronite success,
Emir’s/governors favor.
Maronites turn to economic opportunities
provided by European powers doing business
in the Levant
From 1830s on – Port of Beirut expands
Ottomans needed exports to sell in Europe
Desire for export commodities on the part of
the Ottomans
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So, how to meet the need for export wealth?
Ottoman “notables” begin to bring more
tracts of land under cultivation
Wheat, barley, other commodities are sought
to fill void in export market
Enter: The Tanzimat Land Code of 1858
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Prior to 1858, land in Ottoman Syria, part of
the Ottoman Empire since 1516, was
cultivated or occupied mainly by peasants.
Land ownership was regulated by people
living on the land according to customs and
traditions.
Usually, land was communally owned by
village residents, though land could be owned
by individuals or families
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In 1858 the Ottoman Empire introduced The
Ottoman Land Code of 1858
required land owners to register ownership.
The reasons behind the law were twofold.
 (1) to increase tax revenue, and
▪ (2) to exercise greater state control over the area.
▪ Peasants, however, saw no need to register claims, for
several reasons
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Why peasant dislike of Tanzimat Land Code?
1. land owners were subject to military service in the Ottoman
Army
2. general opposition to official regulations from the Ottoman
Empire
3. evasion of taxes and registration fees to the Ottoman
Empire
The registration process itself was open to misregistration and
manipulation.
 Land collectively owned by village residents ended up registered
to one villager, and
 Merchants and local Ottoman administrators took the opportunity
to register large areas of land to their own name.
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Result:
Land that became the legal property of
people who had never lived on the land
Peasants, having lived there for generations,
retained possession, but became tenants of
absentee owners
Does this sound familiar?
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Some peasants buy and register land in the
name of “notables” thinking they will be
taken care of
Enter: Muhammad Ali Pasha (First TurkoEgyptian War/First Egyptian – Ottoman War)
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First Turko-Egyptian War (also referred to as
Egyptian – Ottoman War)
Muhammad’s son Ibrahim invades for having
been denied Syria
1831-1840 Ibrahim Pasha rules Syria
Europeans, particularly Britain, force Ibrahim
out – 1840
Political power vacuum results
Mount Lebanon undergoes civil strife and
conflict for 20 years
Ottoman Empire


Who will fill the political power vacuum?
The Players:
Ottoman Empire
Druze
Sunni
Shia
Christian (Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Greek
Catholic)
* (as well as, Jews – though not powerful enough to
be reckoned with)
Sunni Shia division:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQdhmsw-hvc
Ottoman Empire
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Each religious faction PLUS European powers
& Russia are vying for control in the region.
Ottoman’s introduce Bashir III as Governor
Bashir III struggles to maintain stability
Christians are periodically massacred by the
Druze
As advised by European powers: Ottomans
propose division of Mt. Lebanon
Ottoman Empire (w/ European influence)

The division of Mt.
Lebanon
▪ known as the double Qa’
imaqamate
▪ Two communities are too
mixed – impractical
▪ Result: in attempt to
separate Maronite North
from Druze South direct
clashes fill the years of
1841-1845
▪ In 1845 = outright Civil War
Ottoman Empire (w/ European influence)
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The Europeans encouraged the Ottomans to
bring it to an end.
Solution profferred by Ottoman Foreign
Minister, Shakib Effendi
 as a way of recognizing how complex Lebanese
society was, he allowed for the representation of
each sect (Maronites, Druze, Sunni, Shi’ite, Greek
Orthodox, greek Catholic) on each of the two
councils of the Qa’imaqamate.
Ottoman Empire (w/ European influence)
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They were assisted by deputies in both districts (north and south).
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They tried to introduce representative councils, but 1858 put an
end to this
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1850 : anti-Chrstian riots in Aleppo
1856 : anti Christian riots in Nablus
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1858: the Kisrwan rebellion dealt this a mortal blow (showing that
there was still no effective centralised political power)
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1858 started in the North as Maronite peasants against Maronite
muqata’ajis (landowners), but ended up in south as Maronite
peasants against their Druze landlords.
Ottoman Empire w/ Euro Influence
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1860: Maronites defeated, loads killed, 100,000 refugees.
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1860 July – it spread to Damscus. 5-10,000 Christians were
massacred.
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(this was also partly caused by Muslim hostility to Christians)
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This brought in the French army. Napoleon III had to appease
French Catholic public.
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1860: Civil War erupted.
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(there was a distinct lack of a viable political system. French
support for Maronites turned it into a struggle for ultimate
political control.
Possible resource
https://books.google.com/books?id=K5qJfJng
EO4C&pg=PA28&lpg=PA28&dq=muqata%E2
%80%99ajis&source=bl&ots=4fd7vLoIfm&sig
=p8A0triYRPX2JgWMr7aQlOhSJmQ&hl=en&s
a=X&ei=sDeQVNO8IIK0sASOg4D4Dw&ved=0
CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=muqata%E2%
80%99ajis&f=false