I not only use all the
brains that I have, but
all that I can borrow.
—Woodrow Wilson
An Introduction to
Documentation,
In-text Citations,
and Framing
ENL 111, Dr. Vavra
What IS “Documentation”?
“Documentation” denotes various
formats for indicating in your writing where
your source materials (articles, books,
interviews, web pages, etc.) come from. In
other words, “documentation” enables
readers of your writing to find your
sources.
The Purposes of Documentation
Documentation has four primary purposes,
one negative, and three positive:
 To avoid plagiarism,
 To give credit where it is due,
 To enable readers to find your
sources, and
 To add to your own credibility.
The Formats of Documentation
We live in a free country. As a result,
there is no one who can tell us the one
right way to format documentation. As a
result, there are several different formats
for documenting sources.
(Don’t complain. If we want freedom,
we need to pay for it.)
Formats for Documentation - 1
 MLA (from the Modern Language
Association)
 APA (from the American Psychological
Association)
 Various formats in databases
Formats for Documentation - 2
We will be using the MLA format. In
some courses you will be expected to use
APA, but the differences between the two
are mainly questions of what information
goes where in the format. (We may look at
the differences in a later class.)
The Three Parts of Documentation
 Works Cited (and/or) Bibliography
 In-text citations
 Framing
Works Cited or Bibliography?
 A “Works Cited” is an alphabetical list of all
the sources (works) that you cited (used)
in your paper.
 A “Bibliography” usually includes
everything in the Works Cited, but also
includes other sources that the writer
believes are relevant to the topic.
Your “Works Cited” List
For Major Paper 2, I have given you the
citations for your MLA “Works Cited” list in the
notes to each of the four essays. Two of those
entries are:
Perry, William G. “Examsmanship and the Liberal
Arts.” Harvard University/Samuel Lipoff. n.d.
Web. 23 June 2012.
Twain, Mark. “Corn-pone Opinions.” Famous
American Essays. Ed. John J. Public. New York:
Classic Books, Inc., 1954. 154-157. Print.
Your “Works Cited” List
Note that a “Works Cited” list should be
in alphabetical order. If a source has no
author, use the first words in the entry
(such as the title of the article). Do NOT
use “Anonymous.”
If an entry begins with “A,” “An,” or
“The,” ignore these words and use the
second word in the entry.
The Parts of a Works Cited Citation
We will be working on making “Works Cited”
lists later in this course. For this paper, you
already have what you need. Here we will
concentrate on in-text citations and framing.
In-text Citations
 Your Works Cited tells your readers what
sources you used, but it does not tell them
where specific information in your paper
came from.
 To do that, you need to include citations in
your text – they are called “in-text”
citations.
An In-text Citation
 Suppose that the following were in a
paragraph in a paper:
Jennifer Crocker, a professor of psychology at Michigan,
suggested that “In some cases, having an incremental theory
might actually lead to dysfunctional behavior.” (Glenn 7).
 In-text citations go in parentheses right
after the end of the source material.
An In-text Citation
Jennifer Crocker, a professor of psychology at Michigan, suggested
that “In some cases, having an incremental theory might actually lead
to dysfunctional behavior.” (Glenn 7).
In-text citations should include just
enough information to find the source in
your Works Cited list, plus the page
number on which that information is
located. [Memorize this!] Thus, this citation
directs us to find the source by Glenn in the
Works Cited list. It also tells us that once we find
that source, the given information is on page
seven.
Page Numbers in In-text Citation
The only cases in which you do not
need a page number are those in which
the source is entirely on one page. (That
information will be on the Works Cited list.)
For our purposes, if any other source
does not have page numbers (such as
web pages) number the pages of your
print-out and use those page numbers.
Source Markers in In-text Citations
If it is not indicated by a voice
marker (which we will get to), the
in-text citation should include the
first words of the “Works Cited”
entry for that source, plus the page
number on which that information
is found. For example – (Perry 36).
Source Markers in In-text Citations
A “voice marker” is a word or phrase that
indicates the source of the information. If you use
one, you just need the page number. For example:
According to William Perry, a “cow” is a person who
just spits back facts. (36)
This format means that there is a source in the
“Works Cited” that starts with “Perry.” Thus “Perry”
does not need to be repeated in the in-text citation.
Paraphrasing vs. Quoting
Note, by the way, that you need
documentation for ideas, etc., not
just for material that you quote. As
far as documentation is concerned
paraphrases and quotations are
treated in the same way.
Framing Sources
You will be learning more about
framing sources in the chapters
that will be assigned from They
Say / I Say. The following is a
preview. It is called “framing”
because it consists of putting two
pieces of information before, and
two after, any source materials that
you use.
Framing Sources
Four things are involved in framing:
1. Voice Marker
2. Credibility Marker
<source material (quoted or paraphrased)>
3. In-text Citation
4. Metacommentary
Voice Markers - 1
We have already briefly
discussed voice markers. Graff
and Birkenstein give a number of
good templates for them, and they
also provide a nice list of verbs
that can be used in place of “said.”
Voice Markers - 2
Remember that the first time
you name a source, use their first
and last name. After that, use only
their last name. The first time you
mention him, use “Mark Twain.”
After that, use “Twain.” (I do NOT
want to see “Mark” unless you
want a big hole in your gas tank.)
Credibility Markers - 1
As their name suggests, credibility
markers provide information about the
credibility of the source. This may be
biographical information, such as:
The famous philosopher William James
claims that . . . .
Dr. Mark Noe, an English professor at
Penn College, has written that . . . .
Credibility Markers - 2
In other cases, you can use the
place of publication as a credibility
marker:
In an article in the National Review online,
Rich Lowry claims that . . . .
“Dirty Laundry Reloaded into your washingmachine,” a feature story on the Greenpeace
International web site, argues that . . . .
Credibility Markers - 3
Later in the course, you may
find that if you examine your
sources, they will give you
information about the author,
either before or after the article
itself.
Credibility Markers - 4
For MP # 2, you can get two
bonus point for including
credibility markers for each of the
three authors that you use, for a
total of six points. Note that you
only include the credibility marker
in the frame the first time that you
use the source.
In-text Citations as Voice Markers
In-text citations also serve
the purpose of voice markers.
They indicate the end of the
“voice” of the source, thereby
returning responsibility for the
ideas to the writer (you).
Metacommentary - 1
You will already have read
and discussed all four essays
before the Chapter Ten on
metacommentary is assigned,
but you might want to browse it
sooner. (It’s eight pages, but
very important.)
Metacommentary - 2
Metacommentary comes after
the in-text citation. As Graff and
Birkenstein nicely explain,
metacommentary can do many
things. The most important thing
that it does, however, is to show
that you (the writer) are thinking.
Metacommentary - 3
Metacommentary can, among
other things:
Explain what you think the source
material means.
Explain how it relates to your thesis.
Explain why you agree, disagree, or
both with the ideas expressed by
the source.
Metacommentary - 4
For MP # 2, you can get two
bonus point for including
metacommentary for each of
the three authors that you use,
for a total of six points. See
Graff and Birkenstein for
templates on how to introduce
metacommentary.
A Suggestion (1)
Always make your Works Cited list
before you begin to draft a paper. That
way you will know exactly what you are
going to cite. As you write your draft of a
paper, include the in-text citations in the
draft.
A Suggestion (2)
Far too many students do not do this.
Then they can’t find the sources when
they go back to “revise” the paper. The
result is that they end up with a serious
plagiarism problem. (Remember that part
of my job is to check your citations against
the copies of your sources that you will be
giving me.)
Quiz (You can use your notes.)
1. What are the four purposes of
documentation? (10 each)
2. What are the two purposes of an in-text
citation? (10 each)
3. In MLA format, what is the general rule
for what goes in the in-text citations? (40)
A noted psychiatrist was a guest at a National Organization for
Women gathering, and his hostess naturally broached the subject in
which the doctor was most at ease.
"Would you mind telling me, Doctor," she asked, "how you detect
whether or not an individual is mentally challenged who appears to be
completely normal?"
"Nothing is easier," he replied. "You ask them a simple question
which everyone should answer with no trouble. If they hesitate, that
puts you on the track."
"What sort of question?"
"Well, you might ask them, 'Captain Cook made three trips
around the world and died during one of them. Which one?'"
The woman thought a moment, then said with a nervous laugh,
"You wouldn't happen to have another example, would you? I must
confess I don't know much about history."