English Varieties
Language Varieties
1. Regional varieties
2. Social varieties
3. Ethnic varieties
A Handbook
of Varieties of
English
British
English
dialects
Pronunciation: North vs. South
Standard
North
‘foot’
[fUt]
[fOt]
‘meat’
[mit]
[met]
‘sun’
[sön]
[sUn]
‘dance’
[dans]
[dæns]
Dialect of East Anglia
No agreement
I go
you go
he go
she come
that say
Dialect of East Anglia
Old plural forms
house – housen
mouse – meece
Dialect of East Anglia
No plural –s after measurement nouns
foot foot
three mile
Dialect of East Anglia
Case in pronouns
I‘ll give he what for some day.
Him left.
Dialect of East Anglia
5.
He begun
He has begun
He broke
He has broke
He drunk
He has drunk
He done
He has done
He blew
He has blew
He come
He has come
He chose
He has chose
Dialect of East Anglia
6. You done it, did you.
Dialect of East Anglia
7.
I
wuz
weren’t
you
wuz
weren’t
he
wuz
weren’t
we
wuz
weren’t
you
wuz
weren’t
they
wuz
weren’t
Dialect of East Anglia
Negative in’t (cf. ain’t)
I in’t a-comen.
‘I’m not coming.’
I in’t done it yet. ‘I haven’t done it yet.’
Dialect of East Anglia
Multiple negation
I couldn’t find hardly none on’em.
Dialect of East Anglia
Subject pronouns in imperatives
Go you on!
Shut you up!
Dialect of East Anglia
‘What’ as a relative marker
He’s the one what done it.
A book what I read.
Dialect of East Anglia
New conjunctions
Go you and have a good wash time I git
tea ready.
There weren’t no laburnum, yet no lilac.
The fruit and vegetables weren’t as big
as last year, more weren’t the taters and
onions.
Dialect of East Anglia
Old progressive forms
I’m a-runnen
you’re a-runnen
he’s a-runnen
we’re a-runnen
you’re a-runnen
they’re a-runnen
He wus a-hitten on it. ‘He was hitting it.’
I’m a-taken on em.
‘I’m taking them.’
English Varieties
British
English
dialects
American English dialects
South-Eastern American English
1. Inflected ‘be’
(1) That’s how it bees.
(2) It bes like that.
2. Omission of ‘be’
(1) She nice.
(2) They acting silly.
3. ‘Be’ perfect
(1) You’re been there.
(2) I’m forgot the food yesterday.
South-Eastern American English
4. A-prefixing
(1) They came a-lookin’ for the possum.
(2) She was a-huntin’ and a-fishin’.
(3) Rex was at/on fishin’.
5. Leveling of past-past participle
(1) I went – I had went
(2) He done the work –
He have done the work
(3) They drinked the beer They have drinked the beer
South-Eastern American English
6.
NP-REL/PP < coordinate/collective NP
< lexical NP < pronominal NP
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
They barks
The dogs barks
People goes
Me and my dog likes to run
The dogs in the truck barks
South-Eastern American English
7.
Double modals
(1) He might could come.
(2) He useto couldn’t count.
8.
‘Aint’ is commonly used in place of ‘haven’t’
and ‘aren’t’
(1) She ain’t there.
(2) She ain’t never done no work.
South-Eastern American English
10.
Was – weren‘t
(1) I was
(2) You was
I weren’t
you weren’t
11.
‘Y’all’ serves as a new plural pronoun
12.
Regularization of ‘himself ’
(1) He saw hisself in the mirror.
South-Eastern American English
13.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Comparative forms of adjectives
(most) beautifulest
(most) awfulest
(more) older
11. The –ly marker of adverbs is often omitted.
(1) I was exceptional scared.
(2) I’m frightful bad at that.
12. Plural of quantified measure nouns
(1) I caught 200 pound of flounder.
(2) It’s four mile from here.
Are the non-standard varieties more
advanced or more conservative?
Mechanisms of language change
Simplifications
1. Omission of copula
2. Omission of –ly
3. Omission of plural –s after quantified Ns
4. Omission of agreement –s
Mechanisms of language change
Analogical extensions/leveling
1. Loss of contrast: past and past PTC
2. was – weren’t
3. Plural –s for 3.person
4. Hisself for himself
Mechanisms of language change
Expressivity
1. Double negation
2. Double modals
3. y’all
4. more ADJ –er/-est
4. ‘you’ in imperatives
British vs. American English
Gloss
British
American
schedule
[SEdyUl]
[skEDUl]
garage
['g{rID]
lieutenant
[lef'ten@nt]
[lu:'ten@nt]
ate
[Et]
[et]
neither
[naID@r]
[niD@r]
[g@'ra:Z]
British vs. American English
Gloss
British
American
leisure
[lEZ@r]
tomato
[t@mato]
missile
[mIsaIl]
[mIsl]
fertile
[fErtaIl]
[fErtl]
fragile
[fr{DaIl]
[liZ@r]
[t@meto]
[fr{DIl]
British vs. American English
1.
2.
3.
4.
In American English, [t] has become a flap
after stressed syllables, at the beginning of
an unstressed syllable (e.g. butter).
In American English, [l] is stronger
velarized at the end of a word (e.g. call).
In British English, [æ] has become [a] in
many words.
Schwa is more centralized in American
English (e.g. but).
British vs. American English
1.
2.
3.
4.
In American English, [t] has become a flap
after stressed syllables, at the beginning of
an unstressed syllable (e.g. butter).
In American English, [l] is stronger
velarized at the end of a word (e.g. call).
In British English, [æ] has become [a] in
many words.
Schwa is more centralized in American
English (e.g. but).
British vs. American English
5.
Most British dialects have lost postvocalic
[r], while most American dialects have kept
it (e.g. [ka] vs. [kar] ‘car’).
Rhotic and
non-rhotic
varieties in
Britain
Labov 1972: rhotic varieties in NYC
Casual Speech
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
18
1
lower class
2
6
6
6
lower working
middle
upper working lower middle upper middle
class
working class
class
class
class
Labov 1972: rhotic varieties in NYC
Reading
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
30
5
lower class
10
11
17
20
lower working
middle
upper working lower middle upper middle
class
working class
class
class
class
Labov – Rhoticity in NYC
Word list
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
60
43
24
10
lower class
25
16
lower working
middle
upper working lower middle
class
working class
class
class
upper middle
class
British vs. American English
Plural of collective nouns
British
The hotel make a point of insulting their guests.
The government are busy.
American
The hotel makes a point of insulting their guests.
The government is busy.
British vs. American English
Prepositions
British
be in hospital
go to university
be in the class
American
be in the hospital
go to the university
be in class
British vs. American English
River names
British
River Thames
American
Thames river
British vs. American English
Get - gotten
British
I have got a pen.
American
I have got a pen.
I have gotten a pen.
British vs. American English
Future shall
British
I shall be there.
American
I will be there.
British vs. American English
Have-questions
British
Have you a room of your own?
American
Do you have a room of your own?
British vs. American English
Subjunctive
British
The judge ordered that he should be held.
American
The judged ordered that he be held.
British vs. American English
Do after auxiliary
British
Have you read the paper yet? No, but I shall do.
American
Have you read the paper yet? No, but I will.
British vs. American English
Ditransitives
British
American
Give me it.
Give it me.
Give me it.
*Give it me.
British vs. American English
Conjunctions
British
I’ll come immediately my class is over.
American
I’ll come as soon as my class is over.
British vs. American English
British
biscuit
chips
crisps
to grill
marrow
monkey nuts
porridge
scone
sultanas
American
British vs. American English
British
American
biscuit
chips
crisps
to grill
marrow
monkey nuts
porridge
scone
sultanas
cookie
french fries
potato chips
to broil
squash
peanuts
oat meal
muffin
raisins
British vs. American English
British
jumper
knickers
nappy
pants
vest
waistcoat
American
British vs. American English
British
American
jumper
knickers
nappy
pants
vest
waistcoat
sweater
(woman’s) underpants
diaper
underwear
undershirt
vest
British vs. American English
British
high street
lollipop man
lorry
motorway
return ticket
roundabout
diversion
American
British vs. American English
British
American
high street
lollipop man
lorry
motorway
return ticket
roundabout
diversion
main street
school crossing guard
truck
turnpike
round-trip ticket
traffic circle
detour
British vs. American English
British
season-ticket holder
no tipping
verge
wing
zebra
boot
bonnet
caravan
American
British vs. American English
British
American
season-ticket holder
no tipping
verge
wing
zebra
boot
bonnet
caravan
commuter
no dumping
shoulder of road
fender
pedestrian crossing
trunk (of car)
hood
trailer
British vs. American English
British
cot
cupboard
dummy
dustbin
garden
off-license store
redundancies
slot machine
sticking plaster
ill
American
British vs. American English
British
American
cot
cupboard
dummy
dustbin
garden
off-license store
redundancies
slot machine
sticking plaster
Ill
crib
closet
pacifier
trash can
yard
liquor store
layoffs
vending machine
bandaid
sick