Portrait of
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles
(1913-1997)
CAROL DONLON
EDAE 668
COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY
SEPTEMBER 20, 2012
My interest in Malcolm Knowles
I selected Knowles for this portrait assignment for the
following reasons:
- Like myself, his career started with educating young
adults. Although this was not his original plan (nor was it
mine), it set him on a path to find new techniques to
educate differently from his traditional educational
experiences.
- It was my own search for alternatives to effectively teach
young adults that I enrolled in an Adult Education
program and was introduced to Knowles and his
theories. I have used his methods and guidelines ever
since and have found it to be effective in helping adults
learn.
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913-1997)
 Theorist
 Adult Educator
 Humanist
 Promoter of Adult
Education & Self-directed
Learning
 User of Learning Contracts
 The Father of
Andragogy
Influenced by:
 Eduard Lindeman
 Carl Rogers
 Abraham Maslow
 Knowle’s Mother, Father and Scouting experiences
The Life of Malcolm Knowles
 1913 - born in Livingston, Montana
 1930 - 1934 attended Harvard, met Hulda and joined a university
organization dedicated to social work
 1934 – graduated from Harvard
 1935 – Married Hulda, joined (NYA) National Youth
Administration (Massachusetts), setting up courses to teach skills
employers need to youth. NYA Supervisor of Training, Eduard
Lindeman, mentors and inspires Knowles
 1940 - Became Director of Adult Education for the Boston YMCA
Knowles credits the YMCA as providing a laboratory
 “for testing out ideas that had been generating from my reading
and my experience…many of the ideas that later evolved as part of
a comprehensive theory of adult learning had their genesis in that
little laboratory” (Carlson, 1989, p. 115).
Knowle’s Life Continued
 1949 – MA (Adult Ed) University of Chicago. Thesis becomes
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part of first book in 1950 – Informal Adult Education
1959- associate professor of Adult Ed at Boston University
1960 - PhD. Began putting together works related to adult
education movement
1967 - meets Yugoslavian Adult Educator Dusan Savicevic
who introduces the term Andragogy
1970 – produced text - The Modern Practice of Adult
Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy and 1973, The Adult
Learner
1974 – Joins North Carolina State University developing
courses using andragogy model
Life Continued
 1975 - Published Self Directed Learning
 1979 - Retired
 Continued to consult, speak and conduct workshops
related to adult learning
 1997- Died of a stroke on Thanksgiving at his home
in Arkansas
 Wrote over 230 articles related to andragogy
Theory that Knowles is Most Known For:
Andragogy
“The art and science of helping adults learn”
( Knowles, 1980, p. 43)
“A Process model in contrast to the content
models” (Knowles, Holton, Swanson, 2011, p. 114).
Knowles used andragogy to show how adults learn
differently than children (pedagogy)
Andragogy
“Andragogy as a system of ideas, concepts, and approaches
to adult learning was introduced to adult educators in the
United States by Malcolm Knowles” (Hiemstra, 1990, p. 1)
 Alexander Kapp, a German teacher, created the term and
Knowles was introduced to it by Yugoslavian adult
educator, Ducan Savicevic
 Knowles used the term as “both label and package for his
product, self-directed learning” (Carlson, 1989, p. 113).
 “Andragogy tells us more about the characteristics of
adult learners than about the nature of learning itself”
( Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 79).
Andrag0gy - 4 Assumptions about adult
learners initially made by Knowles
1) Self-concept moves from dependence to self-
direction
2) Experience becomes a resource for learning
3) Need to learn based on social roles
4) Orientation to learn becomes problem-centered
rather than subject centered and one of immediate
application rather than future application
2 Additional Assumptions later added by
Knowles
5) Motivation to learn becomes internal as opposed to
external
6) Need to see value in what they are learning, why
they need to learn
Comparison of Assumptions between Pedagogy
and Andragogy
Element
Pedagogy
Andragogy
Concept of the learner
Dependent
Increasing selfdirectedness
Role of learners’
experience
Experience learners bring
is of little worth.
Experience is a rich
resource for learning.
Readiness to learn
Learners are ready to
learn what society says
they should.
Learners are ready to
learn when they
experience a need in
order to deal with
problems and situations.
Orientation to learning
Subject matter content to
be used at a later time.
Apply skills and
knowledge to current life
/ immediate.
Adapted from (Knowles, 1980).
Process Elements of Andragogy compared to
Pedagogy
Element
Pedagogical
Approach
Andragogical
Approach
Climate
Authority oriented /
Formal
Relaxed, collaborative,
respectful, informal
Planning
Teacher driven
Mutual planning by
learner and facilitator
Needs Diagnosis
By teacher
By mutual assessment
Objectives
Set by teacher
Mutual negotiation
Learning plan design
Subject / content driven
Problem units sequenced
by readiness
Learning techniques
Transmittal
Experiential / inquiry
Evaluation
Teacher
Mutual re-diagnosis of
needs and measurement
of program
(1992) & Knowles (1995)
as cited in Knowles,
Holton & Swanson (2011)
Adapted from
Knowles
Knowles is also known for:
Self-directed Learning
“… learners have the
primary responsibility
for planning, carrying
out and evaluating their
own learning
experiences”
(Merriam & Caffarella, 1991, as cited in
Smith, 1996, p. 2)
Learning Contracts
“Contract learning is, in
essence, an alternative
way of structuring a
learning experience: It
replaces a content plan
with a process plan."
(Knowles, 1986 as cited in Codde, 1996,
2006, p. 1).
What is
Self- directed learning?
Knowles describes it as a process:
in which individuals take the initiative, with
or without the help of others, in diagnosing
their learning needs, formulating learning
goals, identifying human and material
resources for learning, choosing and
implementing appropriate learning strategies,
and evaluating outcomes. (Knowles, 1975, as cited in Smith, 1996, p. 3).
Self-directed Learning
5 Step Model
Self-directed learning involves:
1) Diagnosing learning needs
2) Formulating learning needs
3) Identifying human material resources for learning
4) Choosing and implementing appropriate learning
strategies
5) Evaluating learning outcomes
(Smith, 2002, p. 9-10).
Why self-directed learning?
“They enter into learning more purposefully
and with great motivation. They also tend to
retain and make use of what they learn better
and longer than do the reactive learners”
(Knowles, 1975, as cited in Smith 2002, p.9).
What are
Learning Contracts?
 “An agreement between a student and institution
or faculty member to acquire knowledge
systematically either in the classroom or
independently” (Codde, 2006, p. 2)
 “The learning contract specifies what is to be
learned, how it is to be learned and how learning
will be verified” (Fox, 1983 as cited in Codde, 2006).
Learning Contracts Include:
1) Learning objectives – skills, knowledge, attitude,
values
2) Resources and strategies to achieve objectives
3) When they will be accomplished
4) Evidence showing objectives are achieved
5) How it will be evaluated
Source used – Codde (2006)
Why use learning contracts?
 Solve problem of dealing with large differences
within groups
 It is an active process promoting independence and
responsibility for learning
 In line with andragogical model
 Learn more when taking initiative
(Codde, 2006)
How to develop a learning contract.
1) Diagnose needs
2) Specify learning objectives
3) Specify learning resources and strategies
4) Specify evidence of accomplishment
5) Specify how the evidence will be evaluated
6) Review your contract (with resource people)
7) Carry out the contract
8) Evaluate your learning
(Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2011: 272-277)
Criticisms Of Knowles and His Theories
Criticisms are many regarding:
- Andragogy definition, being one of helping adults learn
rather than other definitions such as “leader of adults”
(Davenport, 1987, p.17).
- Initially introduced andragogy as a dichotomy -
andragogy vs. pedagogy
- That andragogy is not a theory at all but rather best
practices
- That his ideas restate Lindeman’s
- His assumptions are optimistic
Despite criticisms, Knowles had a major impact on the field
of adult education through his contributions.
Quotes on the Contributions of
Malcolm Knowles
 “He did put the word ‘andragogy’ the art and science of
helping adults learn, into the training vernacular”
(Bell 1989, p. 1)
 “His impact in the field comes through his prolific and
provocative writings as well as through those who have
studied under Malcolm” (Bell 1989, p. 1)
 “Great ability to popularize andragogy as a legitimate
theory, model, or method in adult education” (Davenport &
Davenport, 1985, p. 5)
 “He seized upon a catchy term, made it a household
word in adult education circles, and brought both
andragogy and adult education to the attention of
many disciplines” (Davenport & Davenport, 1985, p. 5)
Books by Knowles
Wrote 18 books including:
 1950 – Informal Adult Education: a guide for
administrators, leaders, and teachers
 1955 – How to develop better leaders
 1959 - Introduction to group dynamics
 1973 – The adult learner: A neglected species
 1975 – Self-directed learning: A guide for learners
and teachers.
 1977 – The Adult Education Movement in the United
States
Books by Knowles
 1980 – The modern practice of adult education:
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From pedagogy to andragogy
1984 – Andragogy in action: Applying modern
principles of adult education.
1986 – Using learning contracts
1989 – The making of an adult educator
2005 – The adult learner: The definitive classic in
adult education and human resource development
Who was Malcolm Knowles?
“A Learner- perpetually reflecting, rethinking, and
renewing…
in a word, growing…
The consummate mentor –
one passionately interested and involved in
helping others to grow” (Bell, 1989, p. 1).
The father of Andragogy.
Sources Used
Bell, C. (1989). Malcolm. Training & Development
Journal. Retrieved from: http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article1G1-7784072/malcolm-profile-author-malcolm.html
Carlson, R. (1989). Malcolm Knowles: apostle of andragogy. Vitae
Scholasticae, 8:1, 113-121.
Codde, J. (1996, 2006). Using learning contracts in the college classroom.
Retrieved from: https://www.msu.edu/user/coddejos/contract.htm
Davenport, J. (1987). Is there any way out of the andragogy morass?
Lifelong learning. 11:3, 17-20.
Davenport, J. & Davenport, J. Knowles or Lindeman: would the real
father of American andragogy please stand up. Lifelong Learning. 9:3,
4-5.
Sources Continued
Hartree, A. (1984). Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy: a
critique. International Journal of Lifelong Education. 3:3, 203210.
Hiemstra, R., & Sisco, B. (1990). Moving from pedagogy to
andragogy. Individualizing Instruction: San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Knowles, M. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education:
From Pedagogy to Andragogy. New York: Cambridge.
Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. (2011). The Adult Learner:
The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Development. New
York: Elsevier.
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in
Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sources Continued
Smith, M. K. (1996). ‘Self-direction’, the encyclopedia of informal
education. Retrieved from:
http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-selfdr.htm
Smith, M. K. (1996;1999). ‘Andragogy’, the encyclopedia of
informal education. Retrieved from:
http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm
Smith, M. K. (2002). ‘Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education,
self-direction and andragogy’, the encyclopedia of informal
education. Retrieved from:
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm
Tennant, M. (1986). An evaluation of Knowles’ theory of adult
learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education. 6:2, 113122