AS English
Language
Exam Questions and
Wider Reading for
Paper 2, Section A
1
Throughout this unit of work, you will use this booklet to access:





wider reading
additional resources
exam questions
mark schemes
model answers.
Contents
Page 3/4 – ‘Twitter Is Not the Enemy of the English Language’
Page 5/6 – ‘Twitter users forming tribes…’
Page 7 – Tribes Data
Page 8/9 – ‘How Social Media is Changing Language’
Page 10/11 –‘Teacher told to sound less Northern’
Page 12 – ‘Midlands school BANS children from using
‘damaging' Black Country dialect’
Page 13/20 – ‘Academic Degree Level Essay – Has the English
language achieved global significance?’
Page 21 – ‘Jafaican may be cool, but it sounds ridiculous’
Page 22 – ‘Language Case Study – Shahnaz’
Page 23 – ‘Etiquette for Women’
Page 24 – ‘Exam Style Questions on Diversity and Change’
Page 25 – ‘Assessment Objectives’ ‘AS Component Two Sample
Question’
Page 26 – ‘Sample Exam Question’
Page 27 - ‘AS Component Two Mark Scheme’
Page 28/29 – ‘AS Component Two Model Response’
2
Twitter Is Not the Enemy of the English
Language
REBECCA GREENFIELD
Contrary to all the LOLs, emoticons and hashtags happening in feeds across the
Twittersphere, Twitter isn't destroying the English language, it's making it better. The medium
only allows for 140 character musings, lending itself to abbreviations that don't exactly follow
conventional spelling or grammar rules. Linguist Noam Chomsky finds the whole thing
appalling, calling it "very shallow communication" in an interview with DC blog Brightest Young
Things. "It requires a very brief, concise form of thought and so on that tends toward
superficiality and draws people away from real serious communication … It is not a medium of
a serious interchange," he told Jeff Jetton. But while a few language snobs are in Chomsky's
camp, the rest of the linguistic community doesn't exactly agree.
Twitter is all about slang and abbreviations, but it's just not eroding the English language. In
fact, University of Pennsylvania linguistics professor Mark Liberman found the exact opposite:
It's making it better. Some assume that Twitter using kids on the Interwebs are getting used to
speaking in short bursts filled with non-sensical slang terms and therefore cannot
communicate like the sophisticates of the olden days. "Our expressiveness and our ease with
some words is being diluted so that the sentence with more than one clause is a problem for
us, and the word of more than two syllables is a problem for us," explained actor Ralph
Fiennes, noted The Telegraph. Liberman decided to look into this so called word shortening
phenomenon that's happening and it turns out to be completely false. Liberman compared
recent tweets from Penn newspaper The Daily Pennsylvanian's Twitter feed to text from
Hamlet. "The mean word length in Hamlet (in modern spelling) was 3.99 characters; in P. G.
Wodehouse’s Jeeves stories, the mean word length was 4.05 characters; in the DP‘s tweets,
the mean word length was 4.80 characters," he found, writing on linguistic blog Language
Log.
And even if the type of communication doesn't live up to Chomsky's lofty English ideals, it
might not matter much. It's a 21st century language tool and other linguists aren't about to
ignore it. Feeds have become a research hub for others looking to study language and mood,
as The New York Times's Ben Zimmer points out. "Social scientists can simply take advantage
of Twitter’s stream to eavesdrop on a virtually limitless array of language in action," he writes.
3
And they have. Linguists have looked at phenomenons like Twitter moods and Arab
revolutions. Beyond mood and revolutions though, linguists have started to study the actual
changes to the English language via Twitter. Zimmer points to a study by Carnegie Mellon
researches that mapped regional language use across the country. "Like the profusion of hella
as a form of emphasis in Northern California, as in, 'It’s hella cold out there,'" explains Zimmer.
The study garnered criticism, but this is the type of research linguists do and Twitter just
makes it that much easier, continues Zimmer. "The amount of data available for analysis is
many orders of magnitude bigger than what could be collected with traditional dialect surveys,"
he writes. Whether Chomsky approves or not, Twitter's happening and it's really not all that
bad. Language evolves, Twitter's just making it easier to track what's happening.
4
Twitter users forming tribes with own language,
tweet analysis shows
Analysis of millions of tweets finds more precise use of social media which seems to
contradict idea that Twitter users want to share everything with everyone.
Twitter users are forming 'tribes', each with their own language, according to a scientific
analysis of millions of tweets.
The research on Twitter word usage throws up a pattern of behaviour that seems to
contradict the commonly held belief that users simply want to share everything with
everyone.
In fact, the findings point to a more precise use of social media where users frequently
include keywords in their tweets so that they engage more effectively with other
members of their community or tribe. Just like our ancestors we try to join
communities based on our political interests, ethnicity, work and hobbies.
The largest group found in the analysis was made up of African Americans using the
words 'Nigga', 'poppin' and 'chillin'. That community was one of the more close-knit,
5
sending around 90% of messages within the group. Members also tended to shorten the
ends of their words, replacing 'ing' with 'in' or 'er' with 'a'. (See the on page 7 for a
fuller tribal breakdown)
Prof Vincent Jansen from the School of Biological Sciences at Royal Holloway, the
institution which published the Word Usage Mirrors Community Structure in the
Online Social Network Twitter report with Princeton University, explained:
Interestingly, just as people have varying regional accents, we also found that
communities would misspell words in different ways. The Justin Bieber fans have a
habit of ending words in 'ee', as in 'pleasee'.
To group these users into communities, the researchers turned to algorithms from
physics and network science. The algorithms worked by looking at publicly sent
messages between users.
In the graphic above, the top word given for each tribe is the most significant one in
that community. Circles represent communities, with the area of the circle proportional
to the number of users. The widths of the lines between circles represent the numbers
of messages between or within community. The colours of the loops represent the
proportion of messages that are within users from that group - from yellow 0% to red
100% .
Dr John Bryden, also at Royal Holloway, said that his team can now work out which
tribes we belong to by analysing our tweets.
Given enough data, Bryden said that this can be done "with up to 80% accuracy". The
research team hopes the data gathered from the project, which has been running since
2009, could offer a more accurate insight into the changing language used by different
communities on Twitter. By learning these languages researchers hope new ways will
emerge of engaging with Twitter tribes – rather simply using conventional Twitter
features such as hashtags.
6
Tribes Data
Twitter tribe
Nigga - used liberally by
African Americans
Sxsw - people attending the
sxsw conference
Graditude - social movement
Rubbish - people from the UK
Tbr - fans of comics and
novels
Pelosi - right-wing American
community
Tdd - software developers
Foodies - users who share
recipes
Bieber - fans of Justin Bieber
Avn- Twitter users sharing
and discussing pornography
Melb - Australian users
Playoff - sports fans
Pastors - Christian Twitter
users
Bhi - Indians who use a mix of
english and hindi
Pln- teachers often discussing
online technology
Anipals - animal welfare
Blogtv - TV and youtube fans
who blog
Singtel - Twitter users from
Singapore
Kstew - fans of the twilight
vampire movies
Kradam - Adam Lambert was
an American Idol
Ddub - fans of the New Kids
on the Block
Jhb - South Africans
Alterra - University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee
community
Number of tribe Tweets
members
sent
How many more times words used in a
community compared to that of regular
twitter user
25953 33540192 nigga = 6.57; yall = 5.7
21799 16361985 sxsw = 3.8; presentation = 2.44
21181 20581951 gratitude = 4.28; teleseminar = 6.79
11001 9560134 rubbish = 8.84; bloke = 9.34
7235
6066777 tbr = 20; sdcc = 15.2
6858
4836
6631668 pelosi = 17.2; dems = 13.1
3895191 tdd = 21.3; devs = 10.4
4522
3928
3323157 foodbuzz = 29.5; braised = 14.4
5062956 bieber = 26.8; selena = 21.5
3390
2770
2765
2794983 avn = 24.5; brazzers = 40.5
2421979 melb = 42.3; telstra = 48.1
2141153 playoff = 11.2; offseason = 23.2
2256
1694308 pastors = 27.6; missional = 55.1
1487
1438492 bhi =106; nahi = 105
1354
1152
1115497 pln = 76.2; voicethread = 119
1441651 pawsome = 123; furever = 140
875
784286 blogtv = 46.4; sitnb = 199
875
757457 singtel = 142; starhub = 154
749
996690 kstew = 141; robsten = 143
566
677024 kradam = 283; glamberts = 264
545
513
278
1124209 ddub = 275; twug = 203
419075 jhb = 275; jozi = 266
264717 alterra = 357; uwm = 342
7
How social media is changing language
From unfriend to selfie, social media is clearly having an impact on
language. As someone who writes about social media I’m aware of not only
how fast these online platforms change, but also of how they influence the
language in which I write.
The words that surround us every day influence the words we use. Since so much of
the written language we see is now on the screens of our computers, tablets, and
smartphones, language now evolves partly through our interaction with technology.
And because the language we use to communicate with each other tends to be
more malleable than formal writing, the combination of informal, personal
communication and the mass audience afforded by social media is a recipe for rapid
change.
From the introduction of new words to new meanings for old words to changes in the
way we communicate, social media is making its presence felt.
New ways of communicating
An alphabet soup of acronyms, abbreviations, and neologisms has grown up around
technologically mediated communication to help us be understood. I’m old enough
to have learned the acronyms we now think of as textspeak on the online forums
and ‘internet relay chat’ (IRC) that pre-dated text messaging. On IRC, acronyms
help speed up a real-time typed conversation. On mobile phones they minimize the
inconvenience of typing with tiny keys. And on Twitter they help you make the most
of your 140 characters.
Emoticons such as ;-) and acronyms such as LOL (‘laughing out loud’ – which has
just celebrated its 25th birthday) add useful elements of non-verbal communication –
or annoy people with their overuse. This extends to playful asterisk-enclosed stage
directions describing supposed physical actions or facial expressions (though use
with caution: it turns out that *innocent face* is no defence in court).
An important element of Twitter syntax is the hashtag – a clickable keyword used to
categorize tweets. Hashtags have also spread to other social media platforms – and
they’ve even reached everyday speech, but hopefully spoofs such as Jimmy Fallon
and Justin Timberlake’s sketch on The Tonight Show will dissuade us from using
them too frequently. But you will find hashtags all over popular culture, from
greetings cards and t-shirts to the dialogue of sitcom characters.
Syntax aside, social media has also prompted a more subtle revolution in the way
we communicate. We share more personal information, but also communicate with
larger audiences. Our communication styles consequently become more informal
8
and more open, and this seeps into other areas of life and culture. When writing on
social media, we are also more succinct, get to the point quicker, operate within the
creative constraints of 140 characters on Twitter, or aspire to brevity with blogs.
New words and meanings
Facebook has also done more than most platforms to offer up new meanings for
common words such as friend, like, status, wall, page, and profile. Other new
meanings which crop up on social media channels also reflect the dark side of social
media: a troll is no longer just a character from Norse folklore, but someone who
makes offensive or provocativecomments online; a sock puppet is no longer solely a
puppet made from an old sock, but a self-serving fake online persona;
and astroturfing is no longer simply laying a plastic lawn but also a fake
online grass-roots movement.
Social media is making it easier than ever to contribute to the evolution of language.
You no longer have to be published through traditional avenues to bring word trends
to the attention of the masses. While journalists have long provided the earliest
known uses of topical terms – everything from 1794’s pew-rent in The
Times to beatboxing in The Guardian (1987) – the net has been widened by the
‘net’. A case in point is Oxford Dictionaries 2013 Word of the Year, selfie: the
earliest use of the word has been traced to an Australian internet forum. With
forums, Twitter, Facebook, and other social media channels offering instant
interaction with wide audiences, it’s never been easier to help a word gain traction
from your armchair.
Keeping current
Some people may feel left behind by all this. If you’re a lawyer grappling with the
new geek speak, you may need to use up court time to have terms such
asRickrolling explained to you. And yes, some of us despair at how use of this
informal medium can lead to an equally casual attitude to grammar. But the truth is
that social media is great for word nerds. It provides a rich playground for
experimenting with, developing, and subverting language.
It can also be a great way keep up with these changes. Pay attention to discussions
in your social networks and you can spot emerging new words, new uses of words –
and maybe even coin one yourself.
9
Teacher ‘told to sound less northern’ after
southern Ofsted inspection
A teacher has been told to tone down her northern accent as a result of
criticism by school inspectors.
The teacher, who is working in west Berkshire but hails from Cumbria, has been set
this by her school as one of her "targets" to improve performance, her union said
today.
"You could write it off as humorous at first sight - but the more you think about it
the more it should make your blood boil and should stagger you," said Paul Watkins,
executive member of the National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women
Teachers for west Berkshire, said.
"If you'd said it about a Welsh accent or ethnic minority group, you would be
accused of being racist."
He added: "Apparently, the beginning of this was Ofsted (the education standards
watchdog), who made a comment about her accent. As a consequence of that
comment, it was decided that would be a reasonable objective to impose upon the
member. She was told she needed to make her northern Cumbrian accent sound
more southern.
"How do you assess whether her accent is more or less southern. It's the most
ridiculous thing I've ever heard of."
"I think she has taken the approach of it being unbelievable," said Mr Watkins. "I
think that she - and credit to her - has seen the good humour in this in that she
thinks it's so farcical and bizarre. You couldn't make it up."
Mr Watkins, who declined to name the school on the grounds it would put an
embarrassing spotlight on the teacher, said there were "a number of on-going issues
at the school" - including its potential transformation into an academy.
Not surprisingly, the incident has gone down like a lead balloon in Cumbria with
Eric Robson, the chairman of the Cumbrian Society, saying: "That school should be
put in special measures immediately. It's ridiculous."
Louise Green, editor of the Lakeland Dialect Society, added that the Cumbrian
accent was "the most wonderful thing" about the county. "To try and remove it is
like trying to remove Beefeaters," she said. "We should be celebrating our different
regional ways of speech and promoting and protecting them."
10
A spokesman for Ofsted said it would be happy to investigate the matter if it was
given the name of the school.
"Inspectors comment on the standard of teaching at schools," he added. "Negative
comments about the suitability of regional accents are clearly inappropriate and
should form no part of our assessment of a school's or a teacher's performance."
The incident comes just a week after a school in the Black Country - Colley Lane,
primary, Halesowen - gave its pupils a list of ten banned regional phrases which, it
said, could damage their prospects.
These included "ya cor" meaning "you can't" and "ay?" instead of
"pardon". Headteacher John White said: "It is about getting them ready for job
interviews."
11
Midlands school BANS children from
using 'damaging' Black Country dialect




Staff at the West Midlands primary have drawn up list offending phrases
They include 'I cor do that' instead of 'I can't do that' and 'Ay?'
Parents and local residents have branded the move as 'snobbish'
But the school says it wants it children to have 'the best start possible'
Children at a primary school in the West Midlands have been told to speak proper English instead
of the Black Country dialect to halt a ‘decline in standards’.
Those who say they ‘cor do that’ – ‘can’t do that’ – will not be punished, but they will be corrected
every time they utter an outlawed phrase.
Angry parents criticised the ban at Colley Lane Primary School in Halesowen, claiming it is
‘snobbish’ and ‘insulting’. A letter posted to parents last week said the school wanted pupils to
have the ‘best start possible’. It added: ‘Recently we asked each class teacher to write a list of the
top ten most damaging phrases used by children in the classroom. We are introducing a “zero
tolerance” in the classroom to get children out of the habit of using the phrases on the list.’
The Black Country includes Dudley, Sandwell, Walsall, and southern parts of Wolverhampton.
Other words and phrases on the prohibited list include ‘ay’, meaning ‘pardon’, and ‘I day’, meaning
‘I didn’t’.
Alana Willetts, 30, whose nine-year-old son George goes to the school, said staff should be
teaching pupils about the Black Country and its dialect. ‘Some of my friends have gone on to be
doctors and lawyers and I’m an engineer – [the accent] doesn’t affect you as a person,’ she said. ‘I
think it is patronising and insulting to say that people with a Black Country accent are
disadvantaged. All the parents are outraged.’
Ann Mills, 62, who has two grandchildren at the school, added: ‘I was raised here and I’m proud of
the way we speak.’
'If they can't say it, it is likely they can't read it, and even
less likely they can write it.
'We value the dialect but we want to encourage children
to learn when to use and when not, like for a job
interview. It is, of course, fine to use in other situations
and we would celebrate that.
'We know it is a topic lots of people will be interested in,
but I'm positive about it. If it starts to get people talking
about the issue, that can only be a good thing.
'We will correct children if they get the words wrong.'
The school was rated as either Good or Outstanding in a
Ofsted inspection report in 2010.
12
Academic Degree Level Essay – Has the English
language achieved global significance?
The extent to which the English Language has achieved global significance is phenomenal, in that no
other language has ever been able to achieve such a status of linguistic eminence. According to Crystal
(1997) a language achieves global status when it develops a special role that is recognised, either culturally
or politically, in every country, across every continent of the world. He also signifies that a global language
is not affected by the quantity of those who speak the language, but much more concerning who those
people are, in that ‘without a strong power base, whether political, military or economic, no language can
make progress as an international medium of communication.’ (Crystal, D. 1997:5) Throughout history, an
international language becomes so for one principal reason; that being ‘the political power of its people.’
(Crystal, D. 1997:7)
It is important to look at the historical significance of English in its ascension to linguistic dominance
and its current position as an international language. There are two primary facets in relation to this
ascension, them being geographical-historical and socio-cultural aspects. The geographical-historical aspect
determines how English reached its position of pre-eminence, whilst the socio-cultural aspect provides an
explanation as to why the language remains in this position of power. Speakers of English throughout the
world have come to be dependant on the language as a tool, in respect to politics, economy, communication,
entertainment, the media and of course, education. (Crystal, D. 1997) The language therefore becomes a
convenience for speakers, in which international domains can be accessed through the aforementioned
lingua franca. Crystal (1997:25) states that the justification of having a lingua franca, that is; a common
language, is that the language is able to ‘serve global human relations and needs.’ The fact that English is
now represented in countries on every continent around the world, as either an official language or by
having prestige within a county’s foreign language teaching system, provides reason for applying the term
‘global’ to the English language beyond doubt.
The spread of English beyond Europe and the British Isles is accredited to four centuries of
colonialism and British imperialism, which led to English being spoken by over three hundred million
people. (Leith, D. 1997) The first significant stride in the advancement of English towards its pre-eminence
as a world language occurred during the early trade in the Atlantic. Leith (1997:182) articulates that by the
year 1600, England had gained trading contacts across three continents, which retrospectively provided a
powerful platform on which the English language was to flourish and become the globally dominant
medium of communication that it is at present. Trading companies such as the Newfoundland fur trade, the
ivory and gold trade on the western coast of Africa and the East India Company brought speakers of English
into economic contact throughout the world. (Leith, D. 1997:182)
13
English and the English-based pidgins created in parts of West Africa, acted as lingua francas of
common communication during the colonial period. These pidgins during the slave trade were the only
means of communicating with other Africans. Eventually, pidgins became the first languages of African
slaves’ children and grandchildren. ‘To operate as first languages, the functions of pidgins had to be
elaborated, their structures amplified: they became creoles.’ (Leith, D. 1997:184) This evolution and
expansion of the English language plays a significant role in its cultural history, in that the archetypal
English culture was becoming diversified; allowing other cultures the opportunity, if not consciously, to
submerge their societal mores into the core of the language.
Regarding the spread of the English language in relation to colonialism, the need for settlement in
specific areas was analogous to the altering political, social and economic revolutionary. ‘English has
become a world language because of its wide diffusion outside the British Isles, to all continents of the
world, by trade, colonisation, and conquest.’ (Barber, C. 1993:234) The first permanent English colonisation
settlement overseas dates from 1607, when colonists arrived in what was to be named Jamestown and
Virginia, after James I and the ‘virgin Queen’ Elizabeth. (Crystal, D. 1997:26) In November 1620, the first
group of Puritans, thirty-five members of the English Separatist Church, and sixty-seven other settlers
arrived at Cape Cod Bay, and established settlement in what came to be named Plymouth, Massachusetts.
The settlers were particularly diverse and dissimilar in age, with young infants to those in their fifties, with
varied regional, social and work-related backgrounds. This diversity would have undoubtedly created a
range of social attitudes and societal beliefs, as well as an array of regional accents and dialects within the
settlement. With regards to the Puritan colonists, their movement occupied and encompassed both social and
political constituents, which would therefore have had ecclesiastical influence on the English Language
within the settlement. In looking back to the origins of Puritanism in the seventeenth century, the movement
was a great contributor to the development of the English language. They showed preference to English
rather than Latin and professed that English was a national language capable bringing together all English
speakers. This is certainly the case in contemporary society, as English has become the global language, in
effect: the lingua franca of communication that brings English speakers together. Furthermore, the language
still maintains its association with religion and Catholicism to this day, which marks a cultural dynamic that
has thus resisted change.
English settlements continued in North America throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
with settlements in the West Indies drawing competition from the Spanish, French and Dutch colonisers. Yet
by the early nineteenth century, Britain had power over many of the Caribbean islands, including Trinidad,
Jamaica and Barbados. (Barber, C. 1993:235) Britain’s ascendancy as a governing political power continued
to expand, with colonies in the Indian subcontinent dating from the latter half of the eighteenth century, and
also settlement in Australia after the American War of Independence (1775-1783). The American
Revolution not only formed a new nation; it also divided the English Language into ‘two streams,’
producing deviation in the spelling or the lexical construction of words with the same semantic loading, for
14
example, ‘theatre’ versus ‘theater.’ (Mencken, H, L. 1936) This deviation suggests that although America
embraced the English Language, the need to be viewed as self-governing and independent is evident through
language variation. It is credible that the English language established what was, during this period of
significant cultural diversification and politic plight, ‘a medium which gave them access to common
opportunity.’ (Crystal, D. 1997:31) Between the first American census in 1788 and 1950, the population had
grown from 4 million to 150 million. According to Barber (1993), it is surely American political and
economic power that accounts for the dominant position of English in the world today, in that America has
ensured its global policy on English as a world language through both cultural and political history.
America’s economic presence and military might during the twentieth century have both established
and maintained the English language’s global prominence: the media, progress in science and industry and
Hollywood, have all been contributors to its ascension. Hollywood has had an effect on the world and its
thought processes, both politically and culturally, and simultaneously; both negatively and positively, due to
substantial worldwide exposure which has undoubtedly had a significant effect on the spread of English.
Negatively, Hollywood appears to promote a biased and markedly Americanised vision of the world as a
whole, depicting an over-simplified view of international divergences, in which ‘stereotyped and negative
images of Muslims, Russians, South Americans (…) are presented as the enemies of freedom and progress.
(Web 4) With reference to history, it is suggested that Hollywood misrepresents authentic historical events,
in ‘downplaying the contribution of other nations to allied victory,’ through mediums such as film and
television. (Web 4) This representation further asserts American dominance and supremacy in relation to
political and cultural means, which could account for the emergence of English as a global language.
However, on the contradictory, Hollywood can also be viewed as far from ‘monolithically American,’ (Web
4) in that directors from diverse non-English language film cultures have introduced new cultural
perspectives to Hollywood through both film and television effectively and successfully. This demonstrates
that Hollywood is both accommodating of other cultures, as well as the transmission of those cultures
through an English speaking medium, which would therefore create heightened exposure of the English
language globally. Economically, Hollywood’s financial power and worldwide publicity allows domination
and supremacy in globalised entertainment, whilst ensuring ‘cultural exports are classed as just another form
of trade in international agreements, and to help it gain control over distribution networks abroad.’ (Web 4)
This ‘control’ indisputably has an effect on English as a world language, as it in inevitable that non-speakers
of English would want to gain knowledge of the language to thus enable themselves with the opportunity to
experience the global phenomena that is Hollywood.
In retrospect to the expansion of British influence and political power with regards to colonisation, it
‘continued at an even greater rate during the nineteenth century.’ (Barber, C. 1993:235) Early in the century,
British rule countermanded the Dutch in South Africa, and also established colonies in Singapore, New
Zealand and Hong Kong. The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the world’s colonial powers
competing for the African continent, a dispute which saw colonies established by Britain in western, eastern
15
and southern Africa. English has been extremely influential in the aforementioned areas, producing many
varieties of the language that is used for diverse purposes and in differing social contexts. Barber (1993)
states that in colonies such as those in North America, Australia and New Zealand, settlers who had English
as a native tongue outnumbered the original populace, and furthermore dominated them both economically
and politically. The native languages therefore had infinitesimal influence on the settlers’ language, which
allowed English to develop and expand in these colonies. As a contrast, in South Africa, the majority of the
population speak a ‘Bantu language such as Zulu or Xhosa.’ (Barber, C. 1993:236) Speakers of Bantu
languages outnumber English speakers on a ratio of one to three. (Barber, C. 1993:236) Notwithstanding this
ratio, South African English has surprisingly resisted influence from Bantu languages and other languages of
the country, and Barber assumes that the ‘long period of British domination and the consequent cultural
prestige of English,’ (Barber, C. 1993: 237) are responsible for the opposition to change or influence. This
demonstrates that even in areas where speakers of English were the minority, the language has the
authoritative power to implement its position in society through both cultural and political history.
English as a second language (wherein it is used together with other local languages for
communicative purposes between different language-groups within the community) has become prominent
in many previously colonised areas, such as Singapore. During the colonisation of Singapore under British
rule, the country’s population expanded considerably. Many ethnic groups from other colonies such as India
and Ceylon settled in Singapore, as well as settlers from bordering areas, the largest group of migrants being
from Southern China. (Web 1) According to the Singapore Census of the year 2000 of ‘resident population
and ethnic group,’ the Singaporean population now consists of approximately 77% Chinese, 14% Malay,
and 8% Indian, which consequently shows great diversity in ethnic origin; this diversity creating the need
for bilingualism. (Web 2)
Bilingualism in Singapore shows the extent to which the English language has developed into a
world language through cultural and political factors both historically and contemporary. English in
Singapore is associated with economic and societal prestige; a lingua franca used as a common medium of
communication in administrative and economic spheres. The languages spoken in Singapore are used in
different social contexts, wherein, English is used in the educational and academic system as well as at home
in familial setting. ‘At one time, Chinese was the principle medium of education, but, despite independence
(1965), English-medium education has spread until it is now almost universal (…)’ (Barber, C. 1993:239)
So as to not deny the speakers native cultural heritage, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil are also taught in
schools, and are used alongside English at home. Furthermore, Cantonese would be used to communicate
with the older generation if they are monolingual in the aforesaid language. Speakers of Singaporean
English are conscious of the functions of the language as a lingua franca in relation to economical and
political facets; they observe English as a unifying factor that connects the community via socio-economical
and political dynamics.
16
In Hong Kong, English is used alongside Cantonese; them both obtaining official language status.
However, their purposes in terms of socio-constructive aspects differ accordingly. English is the language
used in the legal system, education, commerce and industry and the media, yet common daily
communication within society is spoken in Cantonese; the use of English for this purpose being found
objectionable. Therefore, English is observed as a ‘language of power’ whilst Cantonese is the ‘language of
solidarity and an expression of ethnicity.’ (Barber, C. 1993:239) Moreover, the Chinese community are
aware of the influence that the English language bears in terms of political and economic authority around
the globe. Yet, unlike Singaporean speakers of English; they decline to use the language in familial setting,
so as to maintain their own identity and cultural legacy, differentiating the official languages in terms of
formal and interpersonal purpose. Crystal (1997) states that Cantonese is the mother tongue of over 98% of
the population, however estimates in 1992 suggested that over 25% of the population now have some
competence in the English language. He also articulates that ‘there is incredible uncertainty surrounding the
future role of English, after the 1997 transfer of power,’ ending 156 years under British control. (Crystal, D.
1997:51) Conversely, he further states in his 2003 second edition, that ‘patterns of use so far have shown
little change,’ which furthermore demonstrates the standing power of English as a global medium of
communication. (Crystal, D. 2003:59)
Crystal (1997), states that there is vast distinction in the motives for selecting a particular language
as a preferred foreign language in any given country. These reasons incorporate historical conventions,
political expediency, and the aspiration for commercial, cultural or technological contact. Early in the
twentieth century, economic developments were operating on a global scale, ‘fostering the emergence of
massive multinational organisations.’ (Crystal, D. 1997:8) As British political imperialism during the
nineteenth century had allowed the English language to disperse globally, the growth and expansion of
competitive industry and business, equalling international marketing and advertisement in the twentieth
century, further elevated English into a position of secure governance. The development and expansion of
English language as a global language has however caused controversy and an amalgamation of
predicaments regarding whether ‘English should be retained as an official language,’ and whether the
standard form of English or the local variety should be adopted in teaching. (Barber, C. 1993:241) A variety
of factors have contributed to this reaction; them being ‘nationalist feeling, attachment to traditional culture,
desire for advances in science and technology, and the conflicting needs for local and for international
communication.’ (Barber, C. 1993:242) As an exemplar, Barber (1993) affirms that after India gained
Independence in 1947; the inhabitants of the Northern regions of India were in favour of using Hindi as the
official language of the country, whilst the Dravidian speaking Southern population favoured the
preservation of English. Southerners were aware that ‘Hindi as the main language would give obvious
economic and political advantages’ (Barber, C. 1993:242) to those in the North and sought to resist Hindi’s
advancement as an official language for this reason.
17
In referring back to British colonisation, the impact of the East India Company in the early 1600’s,
eventually produced a distinct variation of English: Indian English. In India, ‘English now has national and
international functions that are both distinct and complementary. English has thus acquired a new power
base and a new elitism.’(Kachru, B. 1986:12) Baldridge (2002) states that only 3% of India’s population
speak English; those being the ‘individuals who lead India’s economic, industrial, professional, political,
and societal life. ‘(Web 3) Within India, English serves as the language of the aforesaid domains of society,
in which it carries an unyielding degree of prestige and stature, offering many linguistic advantages to those
who speak the language.
Linguist Braj Kachru has suggested that we view the spread of English to global dominance as ‘three
concentric circles.’ (Crystal, D. 1997:53) These circles show the way in which English has been acquired
and the way in which it is being used in currently. The inner circle, applies to the countries in which English
is the primary language, such as the UK, USA, Canada, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. The outer
section encompasses the earlier stages of the expansion of English in non-native locations, wherein English
has become an official language or has assumed a position of importance in second language acquisition in
countries such as Singapore and India. The expanding circle ‘involves those nations which recognise the
importance of English as an international language, though they do not have a history of colonisation by
members of the inner circle, not have they given English any special administrative status.’ (Crystal, D.
1997:54) The expanding circle includes Japan, China, Greece, Poland and a progressively rising number of
other countries in which English is taught as a foreign language. The significance of the concentric circles is
that they illustrate the divisions of how English has come to be a world language, through both historical
aspects of colonisation and the political and cultural facets of the economic revolution.
Kachru (1986), states that assumptions regarding language and power arise from historical, political
and economic facets; in that the power of a language is ultimately connected with societal control and
supremacy. It is certainly exploitation and colonisation that has acted a vehicle in the principal expansion
and spread of English, alongside cultural and political aspects that sustained its presence as a globally
dominant medium of communication. As it stands, English is accountable for bringing together every
continent of the world through the ideal of a lingua franca, governed by political factors. However, there are
dangers that a global language can stimulate, consequently including the proposal of a monolingual class;
indifferent in their approaches to other languages, the manipulation of a language at the expense of those
who have no knowledge of it, and lastly, a global language could accelerate the eradication of minority
languages by means of making them unnecessary. (Crystal, S. 1997:12) The English language has however,
firmly secured its label as a ‘global’ language in contemporary society and in the foreseeable future.
18
REFERENCES
Barber, C. (1993) The English Language: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge.
Crystal, D. (1997) English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press:
Cambridge.
Crystal, D. (2003) English as a Global Language (2nd ed) Cambridge University
Press: Cambridge.
Kachru, B (1986) The Alchemy of English: The spread, functions, and models of nonNative Englishes. Pergamon Press Inc: New York
Kachru, B. (1986c) ‘The Power and Politics of English.’ World Englishes, Vol. 5: No.
2-3: 121-140.
Leith, D. (1997) A Social History of English (2nd ed) Routledge: London.
Mencken, H, L. (1936) The American Language: An inquiry into the development of
English in the United States. AA Knopf: University of Michigan.
WEBLIOGRAPHY
Web 1: http://www.une.edu.au/langnet/definitions/singlish.html#bkgd-SCE
Title: Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish)
Author: Jeff Siegel (University of New England)
Last Modified: Not Known
Date Assessed: 10/11/08
Web 2: http://www.singstat.gov.sg/stats/themes/people/indicators.pdf
Title: Key Indicators of the Resident Population (2000 Census)
Author: Singapore Government
19
Last Modified: 30th June 2007
Date Accessed: 10/11/08
Web 3: http://www.languageinindia.com/junjul2002/baldridgeindianenglish.html
Title: Linguistic and Social Characteristics of Indian English (Language in India)
Author: Jason Baldridge (M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D. & B. Mallikarjun, Ph.D. eds)
Last Modified: July 2002
Date Accessed: 11/11/08
Web 4: http://www.idebate.org/debatabase/topic_details.php?topicID=57
Title: Hollywood’s Influence: Does Hollywood have a negative impact on the world?
Author: Alastair Endersby (UK)
Last Modified: 01/11/00
Date Accessed: 11/11/08
20
I was surprised a few years ago to hear an acquaintance more Left-wing than me (admittedly that’s not saying much)
saying he was moving out of London because he’d just had kids and “didn’t want them growing up talking like Ali G”.
And Paul Weller said the same thing in an interview with the Telegraph a few years later, about his choice of school
for his kids, although perhaps having mixed-race children made him feel bolder about facing any accusation of racism.
And I don’t think an aversion to Jafaican (fake Jamaican), which according to the Sunday Times (£, obviously) will
have completely replaced Cockney by 2030, is racial. The West Indian accent from which it came is fairly pleasant,
nice enough for various drink makers to use it to flog us their products. However, its by-product is rather unpleasant,
sinister, idiotic and absurd.
Imagine that an Englishman were to start speaking in an inexplicable French or German accent – people would
probably take the trouble to wind down their car windows to shout abuse at him. Yet enough people talk with an
affected West Indian accent for it to become an accent, Jafaican, partly thanks to Radio One’s Tim Westwood, and
despite the Sacha Baron-Cohen character, Ali G, mocking the phenomenon.
It’s unusual for a small minority to actually change a city’s accent, in this case one that is supposed to date back to the
time of Chaucer (although how similar a cokenay of that time would have sounded to modern-day cockneys is hard to
know). The only previous British accent to have been significantly changed by immigration is Scouse, which took on a
distinctive Irish sound in the late 19th-century, but the Irish made up well over of a third of the city. West Indians are
barely 10 per cent of the London population.
Multiculturalism probably played a part. Jafaican’s rise may have been accelerated by the 1975 Bullock Report into
education, "A Language for Life", which heralded the start of multiculturalism in the classroom. It recommended that
“No child should be expected to cast off the language and culture of the home as he crosses the school threshold, and
the curriculum should reflect those aspects of his life”, and recommended that teachers were expected to have an
understanding of Creole dialect “and a positive and sympathetic attitude towards it”.
Never mind that speaking Creole would not have been much of an advantage for a young black kid trying to get on in
London; there seems to have been a general approach in teaching that accents were authentic and should not be
ironed out.
And the replacement of Cockney with Jafaican may reflect something more profound. Accents and fashions display
underlying insecurities and cultural aspirations; the rise of Received Pronunciation reflected a desire by the lowermiddle class and provincials to embrace the values, lifestyles and habits of the British upper-middle class. In London
the adoption of Jafaican, even among the privately educated, reflects both a lack of confidence in British cultural
values and an aspiration towards some form of ghetto authenticity.
Anyway, what are house prices in North Yorkshire like at the moment?
21
Language Case Study – Shahnaz
Shahnaz is a black British woman in her early twenties. She was born and raised in South
London, went to a state secondary school and then sixth form college, before studying for
a BA at the University of Manchester. Here, she talks about some of the factors that affect
her language use:
Both of my parents were born in the UK, therefore I am second-generation Jamaican
diaspora. I, personally, don't have a lot of contact with my family in Jamaica and I have
never been there.
My parents to not speak Patois unless they are with their Jamaican friends and family and it
is usually used in a colloquial manner, usually in jest. My nan speaks with a Patois accent.
However, her lexicon is English-based – when my nan was in Jamaica, her family was
considered lower middle class, and more ‘British’ sounding words were encouraged.
In formal situations I use Standard English; sometimes, I may even use a more Standard
version of English, especially if I was speaking to upper-class people at University who I did
not know. However, if I am familiar with someone (even if they are upper class) I will slip
back into my vernacular, which I would class as ‘slight BBE’ (Black British English).
When I was in Manchester, a lot of people said that I had a strong South London accent. I
lived in a house with Londoners in my final year of University and was told that my accent
was the strongest (relating to BBE).
I think I spoke with a more Standard English variety in Manchester because I was reading a
lot of articles and books, and we would often have debates relating to scholarly material.
However, at home, we used to mimic African accents in jest, which ultimately became part
of our vernacular. We would use words such as ‘chale’ (Ghanaian Twi word for ‘friend’)
‘sha’ (a West African expression similar to ‘hun’ or ‘honey’) and ‘kai’ (usually an expression
of shock). We also used common Nigerian Pidgin English phrases like ‘you no de tell lies’
(‘you’re not lying’). With my Somalian friend, she was also Muslim, so at times we would
use words like ‘walahi’ (similar to ‘swear down’ or ‘I swear it’s true’).
I only usually speak Patois when I am imitating my nan or a person I know that has a strong
Patois accent, or if I am using humour or reciting lyrics from Jamaican music. I only really
have one close Jamaican friend as my close friends come from other backgrounds (Asian,
other Caribbean Islands, Nigeria, Somalia, Syria, etc.) so at times, I may use a form of
Nigerian Pidgin English with them, or variations of their languages and words I have picked
up.
22
23
Exam Style Questions
(Your teacher will also give you a small data set to analyse for each
question. Use this in conjunction with your own supporting examples).
Either
01: Discuss the idea that men and women use language differently.
Or
02: Discuss the idea that the English language is changing and breaking up into many
different Englishes.
Either
01: Discuss the idea that speakers adapt their language to accommodate others.
Or
02: Discuss the idea that representations of ethnicity in language are a concern.
Either
01: Discuss the idea that certain accents and dialects carry prestige, whilst others do not.
Or
02: Discuss the following statement: ‘political correctness is based on the idea that
language doesn‘t just reflect social attitudes, but also helps to shape them.’
Either
01: Discuss the idea that only Standard English should be used in schools/the workplace,
and any other varieties should be avoided.
Or
02: Discuss Labov’s theory of language variation and change. Can it be applied to a
modern speech community? Give examples to illustrate your points.
24
Assessment Objectives
 AO1: Apply appropriate methods of language
analysis, using associated terminology and
coherent written expression.
 AO2: Demonstrate critical understanding of
concepts and issues relevant to language use.
 AO3: Analyse and evaluate how contextual
factors and language features are associated with
the construction of meaning.
 AO4: Explore connections across texts,
informed by linguistic concepts and methods.
 AO5: Demonstrate expertise and creativity in
the use of English to communicate in different
ways.
25
AS Component Two Sample Question
Discuss the idea that women and men use language
differently.
- In your answer you should discuss concepts and issues
from language study.
- You should use you own supporting examples and the data
in Table 1, below.
- Table 1 gives details of the turns, speaking time and
interruptions at a staff meeting.
(30 marks)
Table 1
Speaker
Average
turns per
meeting
Average no.
of seconds
per turn
Average ‘did
interrupt’
per meeting
Woman A
Woman B
Woman C
Woman D
Man E
Man F
Man G
Man H
Man I
5.5
5.8
8.0
20.5
11.3
32.2
32.6
30.2
17.0
7.8
10.0
3.0
8.5
16.5
17.1
13.2
10.7
15.8
0.5
0.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
8.0
6.6
4.3
4.5
Average
‘was
interrupted’
per meeting
3.0
3.0
3.2
7.5
2.6
6.7
6.3
5.0
2.5
Source: B Dubois and I Crouch, ‘The question of tag questions in women’s speech: they don’t
really use more of them, do they?’ ‘Language in Society, 4, 03, pp289-294.
26
AS Mark Scheme Extract – A02
AO2: Demonstrate critical understanding of concepts and
issues relevant to language use.
Level/Marks
Level 5
17-20
Level 4
13-16
PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Students will:
- Demonstrate an
individual overview
of issues
- Assess views,
approaches,
interpretations of
linguistic issues
Students will:
- Identify different
views, approaches
and interpretations
of linguistic issues
27
INDICATIVE CONTENT
These are examples of the ways
students’ work might exemplify
the performance characteristics
in the question. They indicate
possible content and how it can
be treated at different levels.
Students are likely to:
 Explore heterogeneity of
female/male speakers
 Explain gender similarities
hypothesis
 Explore other kinds of
language use than spoken
interaction
 Assess dominance and
difference approaches
explicitly
Students are likely to:
 Illustrate effect of situation
and use
 Illustrate effect of other
characteristics of speakers:
age, class, ethnicity
 Explore different
interpretations of
male/female conversational
behaviours: e.g. tags as
showing uncertainty or
wielding power
 Illustrate research on gender
and other variables: e.g.
effect of status by Woods.
AS Example Response
There is a debate in the linguistic field that spoken interactions between men and women are characterised by
miscommunication. There are linguistics such as Lakoff and Tannen who claim that there is difference in how men and
women use language. This leads to the argument that perhaps it is miscommunication that forms a major characteristic
between men and women’s spoken interactions. There are others however, such as Cameron, who disagree and claim that
differences are exaggerated and focused on too much, for reasons other than language.
Robin Lakoff identifies characteristics that were predominantly found in women’s language/ Lakoff suggested that hedges
and fillers along with tag questions were found in women’s spoken language more than in men’s. It could be considered by
men that women’s use of hedges, fillers and tag questions mean women are needy, talk too much and are indecisive.
However, according to Lakoff, women talk less than men. It could be argued that the language features used by women
show that they have an inferior social status to men. This is known as the Deficit Model and could be a reason for a
possible miscommunication between men and women. Men could see women’s use of tag questions as indecisive, whereas
a woman would see then as trying to get the man’s view on a subject and understand how he was feeling or what he was
thinking. It is language features such as this which could lead to miscommunication and confusion between men and
women.
However, research conducted by O’Barr and Atkins on American courtroom trials found that many of the features
identified by Lakoff to be ‘female’ were found in both men and women who were of low social status. This suggests that the
language features Lakoff identified as being female were in fact found within individuals who are feeling powerless and
not just ‘women’ on the whole. Lakoff’s ideas of women’s language features cannot be applied to all women and therefore
may not be a clear indication as to why there may be miscommunications between men and women in spoken language
use, as men are using some of the language features that Lakoff has branded as being a feature of women’s spoken
language.
Another feature of spoken language that could provide miscommunication between men and women is the issue of
dominance. Men have a desire in mixed sex conversations to be seen as the dominant participant and have control of the
conversation, including when people speak, how long they speak for and the topic of conversation. Men could do this by
not taking up a women’s suggested topic of conversation and instead, putting their own topic across by interrupting the
women, as Zimmerman and West found in their 1975 study. Conversations between men and women were recorded by
Zimmerman and West and they found that 96% of all interruptions were made by men. They argue that this was a
reflection of male dominance in society – something that Lakoff’s research also suggests.
There is a common misconception that women interrupt more and do this to potentially show support to the person or
people who they are in a conversation with. Beattie follows this view point but criticises Zimmerman and West by saying
that men may not be interrupting to show dominance alone, but may be attempting to show some form of support and that
they are listening to the conversation by saying things like ‘yeah’ and ‘mhummm.’ Interruptions can often be mistaken for
something else within a conversation. They can be seen as an attempt to gain control and dominance but could actually be
intended for the complete opposite, as Beattie reported.
28
Tannen takes the approach of describing men and women’s conversational style as being different, which could lead to
miscommunication. Tannen, like Zimmerman and West, claims that men are concerned with dominance in a conversation
and interrupt a lot to gain status. Women are the opposite to this and, according to Tannen, are far more interested in
forming bonds with who they are talking to and so they agree more and talk less than men do. Another feature Tannen
found was that men are more inclined to give direct orders such as ‘give me that’ and are not attempting to get away from
any conflict. Women on the other hand, use more polite and indirect orders such as ‘would you mind giving me that
please’ in order to avoid conflict and maintain positive face with who they are talking to. Men have no problem with
breaking face in order to communicate with another person and communicate exactly what they mean. Tannen also notes
that women show understanding and offer support rather than solution, whereas men are the opposite and want factual
information. Men are more concerned with finding solutions. Women may see men as being emotionally unattached when
engaging in a conversation, when in fact, it is simply just the way in which men communicate.
The nature of how men and women converse can provide a large source of what could be described as miscommunication.
Cameron would disagree entirely with Tannen and claim that research is biased and there has been a huge focus on the
differences between male and female language, which is rather small, and not enough focus on the similarities.
Language is used in everyday life and it is easy to sometimes mishear what people say or take what they have said in the
wrong way. This is something that can lead to miscommunication and on top of that, there is the added issue of how men
and women communicate differently which leads to another level of miscommunication. People can use language in a
vulgar way to express how they are feeling or in a more articulate way. This suggests that language is not only a source of
miscommunication between men and women, but also between different social classes. Working classes tend to speak
with shorter sentences and think that they person who they are talking to shares similar experiences to them. The middle
class however, tend to talk with longer, more complex sentences and so not assume that the person they are talking to has
undergone the same experiences. Of course this is, like Lakoff’s research, highly generalised but is a set of generalised
statements that can be applied to society. This shows that gender is not the only factor that is causing miscommunication
between men and women, but also social status and class.
Spoken interactions between men and women can lead to miscommunication for a number of reasons such as
interruptions occurring, dominance being asserted and conversation starters not being taken up. There are different
theories as to why this happens, along with the idea that men and women simply communicate in a different way which
inevitably leads too miscommunication between the two sexes. However, it may never be fully and definitely understood
by leading linguists as to why there is, at times, such miscommunication in spoken interactions between men and women.
Perhaps the topic in itself is just misunderstood.
29