Covalent Compound Notes
Why do atoms bond?
• Atoms gain stability when they share
electrons and form covalent bonds.
• Lower energy states make an atom more
stable.
• Gaining or losing electrons makes atoms
more stable by forming ions with noble-gas
electron configurations.
• Sharing valence electrons with other atoms
also results in noble-gas electron
configurations.
Why do atoms bond? (cont.)
• Atoms in non-ionic compounds share
electrons.
• The chemical bond that results from sharing
electrons is a covalent bond.
• A molecule is formed when two or more
atoms bond.
Electronegativity and Bond Character
• Electronegativity measures the ability of an
atom to attract electrons within a bond
• There are three types of chemical bonds
that can form between atoms:
Ionic bonds
Polar Covalent bonds (partly share electrons)
Non-polar Covalent bonds (fully share
electrons)
Electronegativity and Bond Character
• Ionic compounds only form under certain
circumstances. When one atom is much more
electronegative than another, it will completely
take the electron, forming ions (and therefore
ionic compounds)
• When two atoms have similar electronegativity
values, they may share the electrons to varying
degrees, forming covalent bonds.
• Atoms covalently share electrons when
difference between their attraction is not great
(electronegativity diff. less than 1.7)
Electronegativity and Bond Character (cont.)
• This table lists the character and type of bond that
forms with differences in electronegativity.
• Noble gases are not
listed because they
generally do not form
compounds.
Electron Affinity, Electronegativity, and
Bond Character (cont.)
• Bonding is often not clearly ionic or
covalent.
• This graph summarizes the range of
chemical bonds between two atoms.
Polar Covalent Bonds
• Polar covalent bonds form when atoms pull
on electrons in a molecule unequally.
• Electrons spend more time around one atom
than another resulting in partial charges at
the ends of the bond called a dipole.
• In order to refer to any compound,
chemists use the same rules of naming.
• Ionic compounds simply name the two
halves of the compound (cation, anion).
• Molecular compounds are not arranged in
oppositely charged structures, so cannot
be given names with the same process.
• They often have common names, but
there are methods to produce technical
names:
• There are many ways to name molecular (covalent)
compounds
• 1. Prefixes, roots, and suffixes
• This system simply identifies how many of each atom
there are in a molecule. It places prefixes in front of the
element names to identify the number of atoms for each
one. The following should be memorized:
• mono-1, di-2, tri-3, tetra-4, penta-5, hexa-6, hepta-7,
octa-8, nona-9, deca-10
• For instance P2O3 is:
• diphosphorus trioxide.
• As you can tell, the suffix -ide is added
to the end of the second element, just
like in an ionic compound.
• Try to name the following compounds:
• CCl4, SO2, SO3, ClF3, PCl3, AsF5
2. Naming acids:
There are two types of acids—Binary and
Oxyacids
Binary acids have H+ as the cation, and
have a monotomic anion. They are
named as “hydro___-ic acid”, with part of
the anion name listed in the blank space.
Oxyacids have an H+ cation and a
polyatomic anion that includes oxygen.
They are named with two possible suffixes:
• With polyatomic ions that end in –ate, the
acid name replaces –ate with –ic
• With polyatomic ions that end in –ite, the
acid name replaces it with –ous
The oxyanion name is written as:
_____-ic acid or ______-ous acid with part
of the anion name in the blank.
Examples:
• HI
• HClO3
• HClO2
• H2SO4
• H2S
• Carbonic acid
• Hydrobromic acid
• Sulfurous Acid
• Chloric Acid
• Hydrochloric Acid
Why do atoms bond? (cont.)
• Diatomic molecules (H2, F2 for example)
exist because two-atom molecules are
more stable than single atoms.
Why do atoms bond? (cont.)
• The most stable
arrangement of
atoms exists at the
point of maximum
net attraction,
where the atoms
bond covalently and
form a molecule.
Formation of Bonds
• Atoms are attracted to
each other by the
opposite charges of
their electrons and
the other atom’s
protons. Although the
electrons of the two
atoms repel each
other, the attraction
forces are greater
Formation of Bonds
• At a certain distance,
the protons of the two
atoms start to repel
each other
• The balance between
the attraction and the
repulsion results in an
ideal bond length
between the two
atoms.
Single Covalent Bonds
• When only one pair of electrons is shared,
the result is a single covalent bond.
• The figure shows two hydrogen atoms
forming a hydrogen molecule with a single
covalent bond, resulting in an electron
configuration like helium.
Multiple Covalent Bonds
• Double bonds form when two pairs of
electrons are shared between two atoms.
• Triple bonds form when three pairs of
electrons are shared between two atoms.
• Double and triple bonds are shorter than
single bonds, as the protons in the nuclei
are attracted to more shared electrons
• Double and triple bonds are also stronger
bonds, requiring more energy to separate
them (called bond dissociation energy)
• See p. 246-247
• Double and triple bonds also use
fundamentally different types of bonds.
• Single bonds use sigma bonds, where the
shared electrons are directly in-between
the nuclei of both atoms
• The second (or third) bonds in double and
triple bonds are pi bonds. These are
located above or below the sigma bonds.
• How do we determine the shape in covalent
molecules?
• Covalent molecules are individual units, so they
will have specific numbers of atoms instead of
general ratios (ionic compounds).
• That means the empirical formula (lowest ratio of
atoms) can be different from the molecular
formula (actual number of atoms in a molecule).
• Lewis Structures—represent a chemical
formula, showing unshared and shared
valence electrons
Single Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• In a Lewis structure dots or a line are
used to symbolize a single covalent bond.
• The halogens—the group 17 elements—have
7 valence electrons and form single covalent
bonds with atoms of other non-metals.
• Example: HCl, Cl2
Single Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• Atoms in group 16 can share two electrons
and form two covalent bonds.
• Water is formed from one oxygen with two
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to it .
Single Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• Atoms in group 15 form three single
covalent bonds, such as in ammonia.
Single Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• Atoms of group 14 elements form four
single covalent bonds, such as in methane.
Structural Formulas (cont.)
• Drawing Lewis Structures
– Predict the location of certain atoms.
– Determine the number of electrons available for
bonding.
– Determine the number of bonding pairs.
– Place the bonding pairs.
– Determine the number of bonding pairs remaining.
– Determine whether the central atom satisfies the
octet rule.
Covalent vs. Ionic Bonds Notes
Practice:
• O2
• CO
• N2F2
• C3H6O
Structural Formulas (cont.)
• Exceptions to the normal method of
drawing Lewis structures:
• Atoms within a polyatomic ion are
covalently bonded.
• Ions will change the number of electrons
that are used in the Lewis Structure:
• Negative ions will have that many more
electrons, positive ions will have that many
less electrons
• Examples: OH-1, NH4+1
Resonance Structures
• Resonance is a condition that occurs
when more than one valid Lewis structure
can be written for a molecule or ion.
• This figure shows
three correct ways to
draw the structure for
(NO3)1-.
Resonance Structures (cont.)
• Two or more correct Lewis structures that
represent a single ion or molecule are
resonance structures.
• The molecule behaves as though it has only
one structure.
• The bond lengths are identical to
each other and intermediate
between single and double
covalent bonds.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
• Some molecules do not obey the octet rule.
• A small group of molecules might have an
odd number of valence electrons.
• NO2 has five valence electrons from nitrogen
and 12 from oxygen and cannot form an
exact number of electron pairs.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule (cont.)
• A few compounds form stable
configurations with less than 8 electrons
around the atom—a suboctet.
• A coordinate covalent bond forms when
one atom donates both of the electrons to be
shared with an atom or ion that needs two
electrons.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule (cont.)
• A third group of compounds has central
atoms with more than eight valence
electrons, called an expanded octet.
• Elements in period 3 or higher have a
d-orbital and can form more than four
covalent bonds.
VSEPR Model
• The shape of a molecule determines many
of its physical and chemical properties.
• Molecular geometry (shape) can be
determined with the Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion model, or VSEPR model
which minimizes the repulsion of shared and
unshared electrons around the central atom.
VSEPR Model (cont.)
• Electron pairs repel each other and cause
molecules to be in fixed positions relative
to each other.
• Unshared electron pairs also determine the
shape of a molecule.
• Electron pairs are located in a molecule as far
apart as they can be.
Shapes of Molecules
• VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion)—Electrons are negatively
charged, so they repel each other.
• “Electron Clouds” (bonds, unbonded pairs
of electrons) will spread out in their
arrangement around a central atom as
much as they can
Shapes of Molecules
That allows for many possible shapes around a central
atom:
1. Linear
Shapes of Molecules
• 2. Trigonal Planar
Shapes of Molecules
3. Tetrahedral
Shapes of Molecules
• 4. Trigonal Pyramidal
Shapes of Molecules
• 5. Bent
Hybridization
• Hybridization is a process in which atomic
orbitals mix and form new, identical hybrid
orbitals. During chemical bonding, different
atomic orbitals undergo hybridization. All
available bonding pairs merge into multiple,
identical orbitals (instead of differently
shaped orbitals).
• For example, carbon often undergoes
hybridization, which forms an sp3 orbital
formed from one s orbital and three p orbitals.
• Lone pairs also occupy hybrid orbitals.
Hybridization
(cont.)
• Single, double, and triple
bonds occupy only one hybrid
orbital (CO2 with two double
bonds forms an sp hybrid
orbital). See table 8.6.
Polar Covalent Bonds
• Polar covalent bonds form when atoms pull
on electrons in a molecule unequally.
• Electrons spend more time around one atom
than another resulting in partial charges at
the ends of the bond called a dipole.
Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• Covalently bonded molecules are either
polar or non-polar.
• Non-polar molecules are not attracted by an
electric field.
• Polar molecules align with an electric field.
•
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7b-w0oWttN0
Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• Compare water and CCl4.
• Both bonds are polar, but only water is a
polar molecule because of the shape of the
molecule.
Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• The electric charge on a CCl4 molecule
measured at any distance from the center
of the molecule is identical to the charge
measured at the same distance on the
opposite side.
Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.)
• Solubility is the property of a substance’s
ability to dissolve in another substance.
• Polar molecules and ionic substances are
usually soluble in polar substances.
• Non-polar molecules dissolve only in nonpolar substances.
Properties of Covalent Compounds
• Covalent bonds between atoms are strong,
but attraction forces between molecules
are weak.
• The weak attraction forces are known as van
der Waals forces.
• The forces vary in strength but are weaker
than the bonds in a molecule or ions in an
ionic compound.
Intermolecular Forces
Attraction forces (van der Waals) between
molecules cause some materials to be
solids, some to be liquids, and some to be
gases at the same temperature.
Intermolecular Forces (cont.)
Dispersion forces (London Forces) are weak
forces in non-polar molecules that result
from temporary shifts in density of
electrons in electron clouds.
Intermolecular Forces (cont.)
Dipole-dipole forces are attractions between
oppositely charged regions of polar
molecules.
Intermolecular Forces (cont.)
Hydrogen bonds are special, stronger dipoledipole attractions that occur between
molecules that contain a hydrogen atom
bonded to a small, highly electronegative
atom with at least one lone pair of
electrons, typically fluorine, oxygen, or
nitrogen.
Intermolecular Forces (cont.)
Properties of Covalent Compounds
(cont.)
• Many physical properties are due to
intermolecular forces.
• Weak forces result in the relatively low
melting and boiling points of molecular
substances.
• Many covalent molecules are relatively soft
solids.
• Molecules can align in a crystal lattice, similar
to ionic solids but with less attraction between
particles.
Properties of Covalent Compounds
(cont.)
• Solids composed of only atoms
interconnected by a network of covalent
bonds are called covalent network solids.
• Quartz and diamonds are two common
examples of network solids.