Chapter
SIX
Motivation
Concepts
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What Is Motivation?
Direction
Intensity
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Persistence
What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal
Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
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Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of
becoming
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological
and safety needs
Higher-Order Needs
Self
Esteem
Needs that are satisfied
internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization
needs
Social
Safety
Physiological
E X H I B I T 6–1
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Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all
needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Individuals therefore
must move up the
hierarchy in order.
Maslow Application
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
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Having Little Ambition
Theory X
Managers See Workers as…
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers as…
Accepting Responsibility
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
not opposites of the same thing!
Hygiene
Factors
•Salary
•Work
Conditions
Separate Constructs
– Hygiene Factors—
Extrinsic and Related to
Dissatisfaction
•Company
Policies
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– Motivation Factors—
Intrinsic and Related to
Satisfaction
Motivators
•Achievement
•Responsibility
•Growth
Comparison of Satisfiers
and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme
job dissatisfaction
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright
© 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
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Factors characterizing
events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–2
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–3
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David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
Need for Affiliation
The drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set
of standards, to strive to
succeed
The desire for friendly
and close personal
relationships
Need for Power
The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise
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Bottom Line
Individuals have
different levels of needs
in each of these areas,
and those levels will
drive their behavior.
Matching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6–4
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had
been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to
decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to
jobs that are neither extremely
Hint: For this theory,
dull nor extremely interesting.
think about how fun it is
to read in the summer,
but once reading is
assigned to you for a
grade, you don’t want
to do it!
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What Would Herzberg Say? What Would
Maslow Say?
E X H I B I T 6–5
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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with
self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and performance
will depend on:
•Goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•National culture
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Goal Setting in Action: MBO Programs
Management By Objectives Programs
• Company wide goals and objectives
• Goals aligned at all levels
• Based on Goal Setting Theory
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What Is MBO?
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress
Key Elements
1. Goal specificity
2. Participative decision making
3. An explicit time period
4. Performance feedback
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Cascading of Objectives
E X H I B I T 6–1
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Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory
MBO
Goal-Setting Theory
Goal Specificity
Yes
Yes
Goal Difficulty
Yes
Yes
Feedback
Yes
Yes
Participation
Yes
No
(qualified)
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Why MBOs Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities
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Self-Efficacy
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a
task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be
achieved
Not to be confused with:
Self-esteem, which is:
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves
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Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting
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Four Ways of Increasing Self-efficacy (Bandura)
1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal
Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and
Galatea Effects
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Reinforcement Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences
Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing
(controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
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Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any
inequities
Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6–8
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
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Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than
equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less,
but do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower
quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities
of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded
employees.
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Justice and Equity Theory
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Three Types of Justice
Distributive Justice
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the
outcome (the final distribution)
Perceived fairness of the
process used to determine
the outcome (the final
distribution)
“Who got what?”
“How was who gets what
decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is
treated with dignity and
respect.
“Was I treated well?”
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Expectancy Theory
Ethical Values and
Behaviors of Leaders
Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation
will not occur. Thus,
•
•
•
Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
If they perform, they will be rewarded and
When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.
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Chapter Check-up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each
morning saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t
have to be here, huh?” Knowing this, which
theory gives us insight as to why Elizabeth
may not be motivated at work?
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Chapter Check-up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X
manager, as she/he assumes employees
don’t like work and/or want to be there.
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Chapter Check-up: Motivation
If you study really hard and
only get a B on an exam, but
your classmate barely studies
at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why
you feel less motivated to go
to class?
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Chapter Check-up: Motivation
What theory would say that this man, who knows
he works hard and is performing well, will be
motivated by a gym membership for being a high
performer?
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Chapter Check-up: Motivation
Expectancy Theory
Would a gym membership be considered a
motivator or hygiene factor, according to
Herzberg? Discuss with a classmate.
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Putting It All Together
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