MODULE 2
Meaning and discourse in English
LEXICAL RELATIONS
Lesson 2
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PARADIGMATIC &
SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS
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Horizontal relationships are syntagmatic
Vertical relationships are paradigmatic
So semantic relationships are
paradigmatic
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Lexical relations - Hyponymy
Flower
daffodil
tulip
pansy
rose
Sheep
ram
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ewe
lamb
In this model one lexeme can substitute another: “X is
a kind of Y”.
This relation is called HYPONYMY
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Do these pairs mean the
same thing?
enough
sufficient
insane
mad
rancid
rotten
autumn
fall
regal
kingly
deep
profound
fraternal
brotherly
sodium
chloride
freedom
liberty
endless
everlasting
purchase
buy
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Lexical relations SYNONYMY
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Synonyms are lexemes which have the same
meaning
English has a lot of synonyms because its
vocabulary comes from different sources
(Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Greek, French)
But is it possible to have true synonyms, i.e.
words with exactly the same meaning?
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Distinguishing meanings
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Some words only occur in particular contexts
(e.g. dialect words, autumn-fall)
Some words only occur in certain styles (salt
and sodium chloride)
Some words only occur in certain collocations
(deep water but not profound water)
Some words are emotionally stronger (e.g.
freedom, not liberty)
Some words overlap in meaning but are not
identical (e.g. govern and direct)
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Why is synonymy important
for language students?
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Because students often need to know
“why do you say “x and not y” when x
and y are very similar.
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You will often find the answers in
dictionaries or in concordances (see
lecsson 3 - collocation)
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Are these pairs the same kind
of opposite?
alive
dead
big
little
buy
sell
clumsy
dexterous
dry
wet
first
last
happy
sad
husband
wife
large
small
married
single
over
under
hot
cold
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Lexical relations - Antonymy
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Gradable antonyms - these are capable of
comparison (e.g. wetter, very wet)
Complementary (either-or) antonyms - if one
applies the other does not (e.g. alive/dead)
Converse antonyms - these are mutually
dependent; you cannot have one without the
other (e.g. wife/husband)
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How do we know antonyms?
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By intuition.
The antonym of little is big and the
antonym of large is small. Large is not
the antonym of little even though they
are conceptual opposites.
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Lexical relations - polysemy
Eye
“Eye” is classified as one word
with two different meanings.
This happens when the
difference in meaning is
predictable or regular.
There is a core meaning
from which the other meanings
(“eye” of a needle, “eye” of a
tornado) can be predicted.
Metaphors are often
polysemous

Quic kT i me™ e un
dec ompres s ore T IFF (Non c om pres s o)
s ono nec es s ari per vi s uali zzare ques t 'i mm agine.
QuickT ime ™e un
dec ompr esso re TIFF ( Non co mpre sso)
son o nece ssar ip er visu aliz zar e ques t'immagine .
QuickT i me™ e un
decompressore T IFF (Non com presso)
sono necessari per vi suali zzare quest 'i mm agine.
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Lexical relations -homonymy
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Bank
The word “bank” in “river bank”
and “Lloyd’s bank” are
classified as two different
words with separate meanings
even though they have the
same form.
This is because the meaning
of one form is not predictable
from the meaning of another.
QuickTi me™ e un
decompressore TIFF (N on compresso)
sono necessari per visual izzar e q uest' immag i ne.
QuickT i me™ e un
decompressore T IFF (Non com presso)
sono necessari per vi suali zzare quest 'i mm agine.
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Implications for students
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Leaning groups of hyponyms is easier for
students than learning words separately
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It is important to know how to distinguish the
meaning of synonyms especially at advanced
levels
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Polysemous words are easier for students to
understand than homonyms. Polysemous
and metaphorical meanings can be taught
with “core” meanings.
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Polysemy or Homonymy
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Mai - you’ve got mail, chain mail
Pupil - student, part of the eye
Ear - ear of corn,
Face - face of a clock
Tongue - tongue of a shoe
Key - answer key, key to the door
Charge - electrical charge, price, military
charge
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A word is easier to understand
when …
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It is a cognate
The morphology is recognised
The context is understood (so you can make
a good guess at the meaning)
SO … you should always try to guess the
meaning of a word when these factors are
present
Only use a dictionary when none of these
factors are present, i.e. when you have NO
CHANCE of understanding it!
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