Chapter 17
Human Resources
in Operations
Management
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Human Resources in
Strategic Planning
 TQM recognizes importance of
employees
 Education & training viewed as long-term
investments
 Employees
 Have broad latitude in jobs
 Are trained in wide range of skills
 Are empowered to improve quality & service
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Changes in HR
Management
 Skilled craftspeople
 Scientific management
 Assembly lines
 Limitations of scientific management
 Behavioral influences in job design
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Behavioral Influences in
Job Design
1. Horizontal job enlargement
2. Vertical job enlargement
3. Responsibility for job reliability
and quality
4. Job rotation
5. Communications
between workers
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trends in Job Design
 Job and task flexibility
 Responsibility and empowerment
 Increased skill and ability levels
 Teamwork
 Employee compensation and incentives
 Technology and automation
 Alternative workplaces
 Temporary and part-time employees
 Employee satisfaction
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Evolution of Job Design
1900s to 1960s
1970s to 2000s
Scientific management/
assembly lines
Current trends
Task specialization
Minimal worker skills
Repetition
Minimal job training
Mass production
Piece-rate wages
Time as efficiency
Minimal job
responsibility
Tight supervisory
control
Horizontal job
enlargement
Vertical job enlargement
Extensive job training
Job responsibility and
empowerment
Job control
Training and education
Job rotation
Higher skill levels
Team problem solving
Worker interaction
Employee involvement
Focus on quality
Figure 17.1
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Elements of Job Design
TASK ANALYSIS
Table 17.1












Description of tasks to be performed
Task sequence
Function of tasks
Frequency of tasks
Criticality of tasks
Relationship with other jobs/tasks
Performance requirements
Information requirements
Control requirements
Error possibilities
Tasks duration(s)
Equipment requirements
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Elements of Job Design
TASK ANALYSIS
 Description of tasks to be











performed
Task sequence
Function of tasks
Frequency of tasks
Criticality of tasks
Relationship with other
jobs/tasks
Performance requirements
Information requirements
Control requirements
Error possibilities
Tasks duration(s)
Equipment requirements
Table 17.1
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
WORKER ANALYSIS
Elements
of
Job
Design
 Capability requirements












 Performance requirements
TASK ANALYSIS
WORKER ANALYSIS
 Evaluation
Description of tasks to be
 Capability

Skill
level
performed
requirements
Task sequence
 Performance
 Job training
Function of tasks
requirements
requirements
Frequency of tasks Physical
 Evaluation
Criticality of tasks
 Skill level

Mental
stress
Relationship with other
 Job training
jobs/tasks
 Physical requirements
 Boredom
Performance requirements
 Mental stress
 Motivation
Information requirements
 Boredom
Control requirements
 Motivation

Number
of workers
Error possibilities
 Number
of workers
Tasks duration(s)
 Level of responsibility

Level
of responsibility
Equipment requirements
 Monitoring level
 Quality responsibility
 Monitoring
level
 Empowerment level
 Quality responsibility
 Empowerment level
Table 17.1
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Elements of Job Design
TASK ANALYSIS
 Description of tasks to be











performed
Task sequence
Function of tasks
Frequency of tasks
Criticality of tasks
Relationship with other
jobs/tasks
Performance requirements
Information requirements
Control requirements
Error possibilities
Tasks duration(s)
Equipment requirements
WORKER ANALYSIS
 Capability













requirements
Performance
requirements
Evaluation
Skill level
Job training
Physical requirements
Mental stress
Boredom
Motivation
Number of workers
Level of responsibility
Monitoring level
Quality responsibility
Empowerment level
Table 17.1
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Elements of Job Design
TASK ANALYSIS
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
WORKER ANALYSIS
Capability
 Work place
location
performed
requirements

Process
location
Task sequence
 Performance
Function of tasks
requirements

Temperature
and humidity
Frequency of tasks
 Evaluation
Criticality of tasks  Lighting
 Skill level
Relationship with other
 Job training
jobs/tasks
 Physical requirements
 Ventilation
Performance requirements
 Mental stress

Safety
Information requirements
 Boredom
Control requirements
 Motivation

Logistics
Error possibilities
 Number of workers
Tasks duration(s)  Space
 requirements
Level of responsibility
Equipment requirements
 Monitoring level
 Noise Quality responsibility
 Empowerment level
 Vibration
 Description of tasks to be











Table 17.1
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Elements of Job Design
TASK ANALYSIS
 Description of tasks to be











performed
Task sequence
Function of tasks
Frequency of tasks
Criticality of tasks
Relationship with other
jobs/tasks
Performance requirements
Information requirements
Control requirements
Error possibilities
Tasks duration(s)
Equipment requirements
WORKER ANALYSIS
 Capability













requirements
Performance
requirements
Evaluation
Skill level
Job training
Physical requirements
Mental stress
Boredom
Motivation
Number of workers
Level of responsibility
Monitoring level
Quality responsibility
Empowerment level
ENVIRONEMENTAL ANALYSIS










Work place location
Process location
Temperature and humidity
Lighting
Ventilation
Safety
Logistics
Space requirements
Noise
Vibration
Table 17.1
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Job Analysis
 Study how job should be done
 Tools:
Process flowchart - analyze
process steps
Worker-machine chart - study time
utilization
Motion study - study human
motions in tasks
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Process Flowchart Symbols
Operation: An activity directly contributing
to the product or service.
Transportation: Moving the product or service
from one location to another.
Inspection: Examining the product or service
for completeness, irregularities,
or quality.
Delay: The process having to wait.
Storage: Store of the product or service.
Figure 17.2
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Process Flowchart
Job:
Date:
Copying Job
9/11
Analyst:
Calvin
Page:
Process Description
Process Symbols
Desk operator fills out work order
Work order placed in “waiting job” box
Job picked up by operator and read
Job carried to appropriate copy machine
Operator waits for machine to vacate
Operator loads paper
Operator sets machine
Operator performs and completes job
Operator inspects job for irregularities
Job filed alphabetically in completed shelves
Job waits for pick up
Job moved by cashier for pick up
Cashier completes transaction
Figure 17.3
Cashier packages job (bag, wrap, or box)
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Process Flowchart
Job:
Date:
Copying Job
9/11
Analyst:
Calvin
Page:
Process Description
Process Symbols
Desk operator fills out work order
Work order placed in “waiting job” box
Job picked up by operator and read
Job carried to appropriate copy machine
Operator waits for machine to vacate
Operator loads paper
Operator sets machine
Operator performs and completes job
Operator inspects job for irregularities
Job filed alphabetically in completed shelves
Job waits for pick up
Job moved by cashier for pick up
Cashier completes transaction
Figure 17.3
Cashier packages job (bag, wrap, or box)
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Worker-Machine Chart
Job Photo-Id Cards
Time
(min)
Date
10/14
Operator
Time
(min)
Key in customer data on card
2.6
Idle
Feed data card in
0.4
Accept card
Position customer for photo
1.0
Idle
Take picture
0.6
Begin photo process
Idle
3.4
Photo/card processed
Inspect card & trim edges
1.2
Idle
Photo Machine
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
– 10
Figure 17.4
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Worker-Machine Chart
Job Photo-Id Cards
Time
(min)
Date
Operator
Time
(min)
Key in customer data on card
2.6
Idle
0.4
Accept card
10/14
Photo Machine
–1
–2
–3
Feed data card in
–4
Operator Time
Summary
Position customer for photo
1.0
Take picture
0.6
%
Work
5.8
63
Idle
3.4
37
9.2
Idle min
100%
–5
–6
Total
3.4
Idle
Photo Machine Time
4.8
Begin photo process
%
52
4.4
48
9.2 Min
Photo/card processed
100%
–7
–8
–9
– 10
Inspect card & trim edges
1.2
Idle
Figure 17.4
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Motion Study
 Frank & Lillian Gilbreth
 Find one “best way” to do task
 Divide task into therbligs
Search, select, grasp, hold
 Use videotape to study motions
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General Guidelines For
Motion Study
 Efficient Use Of Human Body
 Work - simplified, rhythmic & symmetric
 Hand/arm motions - coordinated and
simultaneous
 Employ full extent of physical
capabilities
 Conserve energy - use
machines, minimize
distances, use momentum
 Tasks - simple, minimal eye contact &
muscular effort, no unnecessary
motions, delays or idleness
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General Guidelines For
Motion Study
 Efficient Arrangement Of Workplace
 Tools, material, equipment - designated,
easily accessible location
 Seating & work area comfortable and healthy
 Efficient Use Of Equipment
 Equipment & mechanized
tools enhance worker abilities
 Use foot-operated equipment
to relieve hand/arm stress
 Construct & arrange equipment to fit worker use
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Work Measurement
 Estimate standard time
required to perform a task
 Methods of performing
work measurement
Stopwatch time study
Elemental standard
time files
Predetermined motion times
Work sampling
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Stopwatch Time Study
Basic Steps
1. Establish the standard job
method
2. Break down the job into elements
3. Study the job
4. Rate the worker’s performance (RF)
5. Compute the average time (t )
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Stopwatch Time Study
Basic Steps
6. Compute the normal time
Normal Time = (Elemental average) x (rating factor)
Nt = (t )(RF)
Normal Cycle Time = NT = Nt
7. Compute the standard time
Standard Time = (normal cycle time) x (1 + allowance factor)
ST = (NT)(1 + AF)
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Performing a Time Study
Time Study Observation Sheet
Identification of operation
Date
Sandwich Assembly
Operator
Smith
Approval
Jones
Observer
Russell
Cycles
1
Grasp and lay
1 out bread slices
Spread mayonnaise
2 on both slices
3
4
Place ham, cheese,
and lettuce on bread
t
2
3
4
5
6
Summary
7
8
9
10
.04 .05 .05 .04 .06 .05 .06 .06 .07 .05
R .04
.38 .72 1.05 1.40 1.76 2.13 2.50 2.89 3.29
t .07
.06
R .11
.44 .79 1.13 1.47 1.83 2.21 2.60 2.98 3.37
t .12
.11
R .23 .55
.07 .08 .07 .07
.14
.12
.13
.13
5/17
.08
.13
.10
.12
.09
.14
.08
t
t
RF
Nt
.53 .053 1.05 .056
.77 .077 1.00 .077
.14 1.28 1.28 1.10 .141
.93 1.25 1.60 1.96 2.34 2.72 3.12 3.51
Place top on sandwich, t .10 .12 .08 .09 .11 .11 .10 .10 .12 .10 1.03 1.03 1.10 .113
Slice, and stack
R .33 .67 1.01 1.34 1.71 2.07 2.44 2.82 3.24 3.61
Figure 17.5
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Performing a Time Study
Time Study Observation Sheet
Identification
of operation
Average
element
0.53
t
Assembly
time =Sandwich
t=
=
= 0.053
10
10
Operator
Smith
Approval
Jones
Cycles
Normal time = (Elemental average)(rating
factor)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Nt = ( t )(RF) = (0.053)(1.05) = 0.056
Grasp and lay
1 out bread slices
Spread mayonnaise
Normal
2 on both slices
t
Date
Observer
Russell
Summary
10
.04 .05 .05 .04 .06 .05 .06 .06 .07 .05
R .04
t
t
RF
Nt
.53 .053 1.05 .056
.38 .72 1.05 1.40 1.76 2.13 2.50 2.89 3.29
t .07Time
.06 .07
.08= .07
.08 .10
Cycle
= NT
Nt.07= 0.387
R .11
5/17
.09
.08
.77 .077 1.00 .077
.44 .79 1.13 1.47 1.83 2.21 2.60 2.98 3.37
3
t .12 .11 .14 .12 .13 .13 .13 .12 .14 .14 1.28 1.28 1.10 .141
Place ham, cheese,
= (NT)
(1 + AF)
= (0.387)(1+0.15) = 0.445 min
andST
lettuce
on bread
R .23 .55 .93 1.25 1.60 1.96 2.34 2.72 3.12 3.51
4
Place top on sandwich, t .10 .12 .08 .09 .11 .11 .10 .10 .12 .10 1.03 1.03 1.10 .113
Slice, and stack
R .33 .67 1.01 1.34 1.71 2.07 2.44 2.82 3.24 3.61
Example 17.3
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Performing a Time Study
Time Study can
Observation
Sheet
How many sandwiches
be made
in 2 hours?
Identification
of operation
Average
element
0.53
t
Assembly
time =Sandwich
t=
=
= 0.053
10
10
Date
5/17
Approval
Observer
120 min Operator
Smith
Russell
= 269.7 or Jones
270 sandwiches
0.445 min/sandwich
Cycles
Summary
Normal time = (Elemental average)(rating
factor)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Nt = ( t )(RF) = (0.053)(1.05) = 0.056
Grasp and lay
1 out bread slices
Spread mayonnaise
Normal
2 on both slices
t
8
9
10
.04 .05 .05 .04 .06 .05 .06 .06 .07 .05
R .04
t
RF
Nt
.53 .053 1.05 .056
.38 .72 1.05 1.40 1.76 2.13 2.50 2.89 3.29
t .07Time
.06 .07
.08= .07
.08 .10
Cycle
= NT
Nt.07= 0.387
R .11
t
.09
.08
.77 .077 1.00 .077
.44 .79 1.13 1.47 1.83 2.21 2.60 2.98 3.37
3
t .12 .11 .14 .12 .13 .13 .13 .12 .14 .14 1.28 1.28 1.10 .141
Place ham, cheese,
= (NT)
(1 + AF)
= (0.387)(1+0.15) = 0.445 min
andST
lettuce
on bread
R .23 .55 .93 1.25 1.60 1.96 2.34 2.72 3.12 3.51
4
Place top on sandwich, t .10 .12 .08 .09 .11 .11 .10 .10 .12 .10 1.03 1.03 1.10 .113
Slice, and stack
R .33 .67 1.01 1.34 1.71 2.07 2.44 2.82 3.24 3.61
Example 17.3
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Incentive PieceRate System
Piece-rate is $0.04 per sandwich
What would average worker earn per hour?
60 min
= 134.8 or 135 sandwiches
0.445 min/sandwich
Average wage rate = (135)(0.04) = $5.40
Adjusted for the allowance factor–
60 min
= 144.6 or 145 sandwiches
0.415 min/sandwich
Average wage rate = (145)(0.04) = $5.80
Example 17.4
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Number of Cycles
To determine the sample size:
n=
zs
eT
2
where
z = the number of standard deviations from the mean in
a normal distribution reflecting a level of statistical
confidence
s=
(xi - x)2 = sample standard deviation from the
sample time study
n-1
T = the average job cycle time from the sample time study
e = the degree of error from the true mean of the
distribution
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Number of Cycles
Average cycle time = 0.361
Computed standard deviation = 0.03
Company wants to be 95% confident that
computed time is within 5% of true average time
n=
zs
eT
2
2
(1.96)(0.03)
=
= 10.61, or 11
(0.05)(0.361)
Example 17.5
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Elemental Times
 Predetermined Motion Times
 Used for micromotions
 Divide tasks into micromotions
Grasp, reach, move, etc.
 Time Measurement Units (TMU)
0.0006 minutes, 100,000 per hour
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MTM Table for MOVE
TIME (TMU) WEIGHT ALLOWANCE
DISTANCE
Hand in Weight
MOVED
motion
(lb)
Dynamic
(INCHES)
A
B
C
B
up to:
factor
3/4 or less
1 2.5
2.0
2.9
2.0
3.4
2.0
2.3
2 3.6
3 4.9
4 6.1
…
4.6
5.7
6.9
5.2
6.7
8.0
20 19.2
18.2
22.1
2.5
1.00
0
2.9
3.6
4.3
7.5
1.06
2.2
15.6
37.5
1.39
12.5
Static
constant
TMU
A. Move object to other hand or against stop
B. Move object to approximate or indefinite location
C. Move object to exact location
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Work Sampling Basic Steps
1. Define the job activities
2. Determine number of observations
n=
where
z
e
2
p(1 - p)
n = the sample size (number of sample observations)
z = the number of standard deviations from the mean
for the desired level of confidence
e = the degree of allowable error in the sample estimate
p = the proportion of time spent on a work activity
estimated prior to calculating the work sample
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Work Sampling Basic Steps
3. Determine length of sampling period
4. Conduct work sampling study, record
observations
5. Periodically recompute number of
observations
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Work Sampling Study
What percent of time is spent looking up
information? Current estimate is p = 30%
Estimate within +/- 2%, with 95% confidence
n=
z
e
2
1.96
p(1 - p) =
0.02
2
(0.3)(0.7) = 2016.84 or 2017
After 280 observations, p = 38%
n=
z
e
2
1.96
p(1 - p) =
0.02
2
(0.38)(0.62) = 2263
Example 17.6
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learning Curves
 Processing time decreases with
worker learning (experience)
 Time per unit decreases by constant
percentage each time output
doubles
 Use to plan labor, budget &
scheduling requirements
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Processing time per unit
Learning Curves
Units produced
Figure 17.6
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Learning Curves
Time required for the nth unit =
tn = t1nb
where
tn = time required for nth unit produced
t1 = time required for first unit produced
n = cumulative number of units produced
b = ln r/ln 2, where r is the learning curve
percentage (decimal coefficient)
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Learning Curve Effect
Contract to produce 36 computers.
t1 = 18 hours, learning rate = 80%
What is time for 9th, 18th, 36th units?
t9 = (18)(9)ln(0.8)/ln 2 = (18)(9)-0.322
= (18)/(9)0.322 = (18)(0.493) = 8.874hrs
t18 = (18)(18)ln(0.8)/ln 2 = (18)(0.394) = 7.092hrs
t36 = (18)(36)ln(0.8)/ln 2 = (18)(0.315) = 5.674hrs
Example 17.7
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Processing time per unit
Learning Curve for Mass
Production Job
End of improvement
Standard
time
Figure 17.7
Units produced
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
More on Learning Curves
 Not effective for mass production jobs
 Product modifications negate effects
 Improvement can derive from sources
besides learning
 Industry-derived learning curve rates
may be inappropriate
To Accompany Russell and Taylor, Operations Management, 4th Edition,  2003 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.