Chapter 2: The Buck
Starts and Stops with
You
Dr. M. Davis-Brantley
Determinism vs. Free Will
• Many different theories as to how human beings
become who they are
• Scientific disciplines were developed in order to
determine the causes of events
• Initially, scientists believed that behavior was the result
of a natural cause
• This theory is referred to as Determinism the belief in
cause and effect relationship
– Determinists feel that all human actions are caused by
something else, specifically other than free choice
• On the opposite end of the spectrum is Free Will in
which these individuals assert that human beings can
and do ignore so-called determining factors such as
genetics and freely choose how and when to act
Continuum from Determinism to Free Will
Determinism
•Biological
–(Genetic Determinism)
Free Will
•CognitiveBehavioral
•Freudian
–(Psychic Determinism)
•Behavioral
–(Environmental
Determinism)
•Humanism
•Existentialism
Deterministic Theories (Biological)
• Determinists assert that individuals are a
result of our genetic make ups
• All of our behaviors can be traced back to our
genetic makeup
• Proof for these theories rests in the concept
that certain abilities, talents,
emotional/physical disorders can run in
families
– Book examples Famous singers/athletes, etc…
• Emotional Disorders are highly inheritable
(see next slide)
Prevalence of Schizophrenia in
Populations
50
50
40
40
30
20
12
10
0
12
8
1
General Population
Sibling of SCZ
Child of SCZ Pt
Fraternal Tw in
Patient
Schizophrenia
Child of 2 SCZ Pts
Identical Tw in
Deterministic Theories (Psychoanalytic Theory)
•
Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud asserts that individuals become who
they are based on they way you are raised until age 6 (this dictates who you will
be later on in life)
Freud asserts that we progress through 5 different psychosexual stages that last
until the age of 6
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Oral Stage (1st Year)
•
Gratification is obtained through oral activities such as sucking or biting
•
This occurs during the 1st year of life and is how the child begins to learn
about the world
•
Early weaning can result in frustration and result in indulgence later on in life
and these individuals are likely to be dependent, overeat, smoke, use alcohol
excessively, or nail bite
Anal Stage (2nd Year)
•
Gratification is obtained through contraction and relaxation of the muscles
that control bowel movements. Early on these muscle work involuntarily.
•
Toilet training is likely to take place during this time and the child is learning
to distinguish between immediate gratification and self-control
Phallic Stage (3rd Year-5 or 6th year)
•
Libidinal energy has moved to the genital area of the body (penis and clitoris)
•
Children may be reprimanded for masturbatory behaviors that aren’t socially
acceptable
•
Children may begin to form affection for members of the opposite sex and the
Oedipus/Electra complex may arise
–
Oedipus/Electra complex typically resolves itself by ages 5 & 6 where the
child begins to identify with the member of their own gender and seeing
that individual as someone to learn from and they begin to incorporate
gender roles and demands into repertoire
Latency Stage
•
Resolution of the complex leads to the entering into the repression of all
sexual feelings until they reemerge during the genital stage in adolescence
Genital Stage (Adolescence)
Behaviorism: Environmental Theory
• This theory asserts that we are a
result of our learning histories and
previous reinforcements and
consequences we have learned in
the past
• “You become a good student
because you have been rewarded
for your academic achievement”
• Your environment dictates your
behavior
Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov placed meat powder on the
dog’s tongue which led to the dog
salivating
• Then he repeated this process while
ringing a bell
• After several pairings of the meat
powder and the bell the two became
associated
• When Pavlov would ring the bell the
dog learned salivate in response to the
bell because the bell and meat powder
were conditioned
Behaviorism: Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement is a stimulus that increases the
frequency of a behavior
– Different from a reward in that by contrast a
reward is a pleasant stimulus that increases
the frequency of a behavior
• Positive Reinforcement increases the frequency
of behavior when presented
– Ex: Laughter Sr+ Joke telling
• Negative Reinforcement is a reinforcer that
increases the frequency of a behavior when it is
removed
– Ex: Umbrella prevents getting wet in a
rainstorm
– Ex: Seat belt buzzer serves a Sr- function the
annoying sound is terminated when the driver
buckles up
More Theories, Very Different
Perspective
Existentialism
• Began as a major theory of philosophy
• Asserts the view that individuals are
completely free to choose their
courses of action and ultimately
responsible for their actions
• Holds the fundamental view that
human beings are painful free to make
choice, in that we can not escape from
the responsibility that comes with the
ability to choose
• Even by not making a choice, you have
made a choice, thus allowing others to
determine who we are and what we
should do
Humanistic Theory
• Popularized by Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers who hypothesized that
people are capable of free choice, selffulfillment, and ethical behavior
• Maslow believed in a hierarchy of
needs that need to be satisfied in order
until the individual can reach selfactualization
• Self-actualization is the tendency to
strive toward an individual’s complete
potential (the best person you can be)
Cognitive Behavior Theory
• Suggest that Behaviorists primarily focus on “overt” behavior
of individuals and not “covert” behaviors such as our thoughts
and the internal self talk that precedes behaviors
• Cognitive-Behavior theorists assert that there is forethought
before you engage in a particular behavior
• Behaviorism is based on a cause and effect approach or a
stimulus-response approach (S-R), whereas, C-B theory uses a
stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R)
• These theorists assert that there is thought which contributes
to your response not just the stimulus
• Book example: You walk into your house and your spouse or
family member begins yelling at you for being late (S) and you
yell back (R) according to behavior theory
• C-B theory states that there is thought (O) and an individual
can think in different ways and then respond (R)
– Thought: “Who is s/he yelling at”—Your response is = Yelling back
– Thought: “S/he is really worried about me” Your response is = ???
Proactivity
•
•
Proactivity is “the most important paradigm guiding the
behavior of effective individuals” and those individuals have
the freedom to choose to be effective/proactive
Consider Existential theory which asserts we have the
responsibility of to make choices in life
– The word Responsibility carries many different meanings for
different individuals
•
•
•
•
How do you see Responsibility? Paying bills, cleaning the
house,…. Limiting your freedom and holding you back???
Proactive individuals view responsibility as a choice and the
ability to make things happen in your world
Examine the word responsibility—Response-ability—the
ability to choose your response
These individuals do not blame circumstances or conditions
for their behavior; they take responsibility for their behaviors
and their lives
Proactivity: Locus of Control
• External Locus of Control—Individuals who see the
external world as responsible for their lives.
– These individuals feel like victims of the world and
abused by external events that they have no control over
– EX: I did poorly on the test because the teacher made it
hard/tricky
– These individuals respond to their world utilizing
“reactivity” in that they simply react to their world and are
at the mercy of forces beyond their control
• Internal Locus of Control—These individuals believe
that they are responsible for the ultimate outcomes of
their life and do not believe that fate will control their
lives.
– Instead they believe they have control over what happens
in their world
– Individuals with an internal locus of control tend to be
proactive and make things happen in their lives and
choose the responses they choose to engage in or utilize
Ways to Increase Proactivity
1.
Focusing on Your Thoughts
–
–
–
2.
Those who are reactive (or have an external locus of
control) tend to focus on the negative possibilities that
surround them
Those who are proactive choose their outlook on the
world and allow their choice to dictate their lives
EX: “It’s Monday, I’m so tired” vs. ???????
Focusing on Your Language
–
–
3.
“He made me angry” or “I couldn’t make it to class, I
was too tired” instead of “I am angry about something
he did”
You are responsible and in control of your response
Focusing on Your Actions
–
2 habits
1.
2.
3.
Making promises and keeping them
Setting small goals and working to achieve them
What else???
How else can I become more
proactive?
• Dealing with irrational self-talk helps to change the way
you think of things
• Catastrophizing is when an individual tells themselves
that a situation is too overwhelming or too awful or that
the worse is about to happen
• Automatic Thoughts are thoughts that occur to you
automatically and without you thinking about them
– The problem arises when these thoughts influence lead
to/contribute to irrational beliefs
– Automatic thought=“Men are cheaters”=How will you
respond in your everyday life???
• Remember thoughts have no value until you give them
value
• Order of Self-Talk:
– Environmental events Sensory
perceptionCognitions/Self-talkEmotional/Physical
SystemsReaction to world
Cognitive Restructuring
• Cognitive Restructuring involves taking the effort to
change how you see the world or changing your
thoughts
• Step 1: Identify the Irrational belief
– All men are cheaters
– It is horrible when things don’t turn out my way
– I have no control over the things that happen in my life
• Step 2: Examine and Challenge the irrational beliefs
with a rational mind
– Why do I believe this to be true, What is the evidence to
support my belief, If I reject this belief what is the worst
that can happen, If I reject this belief, what is the best that
could happen
• Step 3: Actually reframe the thought
– Reframe previous examples
• Step 4: Practice, Practice, Practice
Correlation vs. Causation
• Correlation is when two variables tend to be reliably
associated with one another
– Ex: Relationship between height and weight
– Ex: Relationship between high stress and low immune
functioning
– Ex: High IQ’s are related to nearsightedness (glasses).
Why?
– Does it always work this way??? In areas where there are
more churches, there are more liquor stores. Why?
• Causation involves one thing causing another
• Just because two things occur together does not offer
proof that one caused the other. There are other factors
that can play a role
• Spurious Correlation is the human tendency to perceive
a correlation or relationship between things that really
does not exist