[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
Summary of Roman Historical and Cultural Background
Roman Republic:
________ BCE to ________ BCE
Early Empire:
________ BCE to CE ________
High Empire:
CE ________ to ________
Late Empire:
CE ________ to ________
Fill in the charts as much as you can from memory; check your answers against the text and complete the charts.
Significant People
Political & Historical
Cultural Factors & Events
______________________________________________________________________________________
Roman Republic
______________________________________________________________________________________
Early Empire
______________________________________________________________________________________
High Empire
___________________________________________________________________________________
Late Empire
Summary of Roman Painting
Typical Examples
Stylistic Characteristics
______________________________________________________________________________________
First Style
Influences
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______________________________________________________________________________________
Second Style
______________________________________________________________________________________
Third Style
______________________________________________________________________________________
Fourth Style
SUMMARY OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Typical Examples
Stylistic Characteristics
______________________________________________________________________________________
Roman Republic
______________________________________________________________________________________
Early Empire
______________________________________________________________________________________
High Empire
______________________________________________________________________________________
Late Empire
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[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
SUMMARY OF ROMAN SCULPTURE
Typical Examples
Stylistic Characteristics
______________________________________________________________________________________
Roman Republic
______________________________________________________________________________________
Early Empire
______________________________________________________________________________________
High Empire
______________________________________________________________________________________
Late Empire
MAP
Locate and circle the following locations on the maps below:
Veii
Rome
Nimes
Pompeii
Faiyum
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[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
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Map 3-1 The Roman Empire
Part 2: Unit Exam Essay Questions
(from previous Art 260 tests)
(from AAT4)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Rome's empire lasted nearly 500 years, whereas the Athenian empire lasted only about 50 years. Discuss the reasons
for this difference, and the long-term effects on Western history.
Describe Roman domestic architecture, including the disposition of rooms and the interior decoration. What were the
purposes of the architecture and the decorations?
Describe the development of Roman painting. How does it compare with the development of Greek vase painting
styles?
Compare the Roman forum with the Greek agora. What was the role of the forum in Roman society and what
buildings were likely to be contained in the forum?
Compare Roman temple design with that of Greece and Egypt. What influence did Etruscan temple architecture have
on the Romans?
Discuss portraiture in Roman art and its social functions. Give specific examples.
(from other)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
You are standing at the door of a Pompeian home. What rooms and types of art will you find inside? Cite specific
examples in your answer.
You have been asked to give a lecture on Roman civic building projects and their purpose. Which five examples should
you discuss and why?
Identify and discuss Roman architectural innovations. Cite specific examples in your answer.
Describe the Forum of Trajan, identifying its parts. Then explain the significance of this forum.
Select one example each of art and architecture from the Republican, Early, High, and Late imperial periods that
embody the values of their era. Explain your choices.
Explain how Roman temples reveal the influence of Greek and Etruscan prototypes. Then explain how Roman builders
adapted their sources. Cite specific examples in your answer.
Explain the uses and advantages of concrete in Roman architecture? Cite specific examples in your answer.
APEssay Questions: Roman Empire
1.
2.
Augustus of Primaporta (FIG. 3-21) and Kritios Boy (FIG.2-28)
Question: “Identify by name both these sculptures. Which came first? What qualities do both sculptures share and
what qualities are different?” (10 minutes)
Students should remember Kritios Boy as a first classical statue (from the Greek chapter) and also know the statue of
Augustus. While both share a classical ideal, students should note that the armored Augustus and the small
associated statue of cupid make almost every facet of the statue a political and propagandistic message.
Arch of Constantine. (FIG.3-45 and 3-46)
Question: “Identify the Roman Emperor for whom this arch is named. What stylistic qualities found on the arch’s
roundels and on the relief panel beneath them reflect influences from earlier cultures, and which suggest new trends
in art? (10 minutes.)
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Students should discuss the arch as a transition art piece with the “older” classical style mixed with the newer styles
of the medieval world.
The Pantheon (FIG.3-33, 3-34 and 3-35).
Question: “Identify the building shown by its name, purpose and culture that built it. Discuss its innovative
engineering and the aesthetic effect achieved by its architects.” (10 minutes.)
The Pantheon should be discussed as a temple for the gods with its unique domed construction and its architecture
of space.
Ara Pacis (FIG. 3-22 and 3-23)
Question: “Identify this Roman monument dedicated to Augustus. Explain how its reliefs were a way to advanced the
ideals of the new Golden Age of Rome.” (10 minutes)
This Ara Pacis was dedicated to the Roman Emperor Augustus in 9 B.C.E., and its reliefs show the Emperor “ancestor,”
Aeneas, in order to create a connection between Augustus and god. The other reliefs depict a specific moment, the
procession of the imperial family, with recognizable figures that include children, in order to promote the Augustan
ideal of family and childbearing. The Ara Pacis is a political as well as aesthetic production.
3.
4.
Chapter Outline (AAT4)
ANCIENT ROME, 6th CENTURY B.C.–4th CENTURY A.D.
Legendary founding by Romulus and Remus (753 B.C.)
Republic (509–27 B.C.); Latin language; government by senate and patricians

Punic Wars against Carthage (264–146 B.C.)
Empire (27 B.C.–A.D. 476)






Augustus first emperor; Virgil's Aeneid
Domestic architecture; public buildings; concrete
The Forum; round arches; domes; barrel vaults
Assimilation of Greek forms and Greek gods
Portraiture; wall paintings; country villas
Rome falls to Germanic invaders (A.D. 476)
South Asia, c. 2700 B.C.–3rd Century A.D.
Indus Valley civilization (2700–1750 B.C.)

Stamp seals; bronze and stone sculpture
Vedas and Upanishads
Buddha born (563 B.C.)
Development of Buddhism: Ashoka's pillars; stupas

Gandharan and Mathuran sculpture
Summary and Study Guide
Define or identify the following terms:
AAT4 Key Terms
abacus
the flat slab that forms the topmost unit of a Doric column and on which the architrave rests.
abhaya
see mudra¯.
aisle
a passageway flanking a central area (e.g., the corridors flanking the nave of a basilica or cathedral).
amphitheater
an oval or circular space surrounded by rising tiers of seats, as used by the ancient Greeks and Romans
for plays and other spectacles.
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aniconic
depicting a figure, usually a deity, symbolically instead of anthropomorphically.
annular or ring
vault
ring-shaped, as in an annular barrel vault.
apse
a projecting part of a building (especially a church), usually semicircular and topped by a half-dome or
vault.
aqueduct
a man-made conduit for transporting water.
arcade
a gallery formed by a series of arches with supporting columns or piers, either freestanding or blind (i.e.,
attached to a wall).
arena
the central area in a Roman amphitheater where gladiatorial spectacles took place.
atrium
(a) an open courtyard leading to, or within, a house or other building, usually surrounded on three or
more sides by a colonnade; (b) in a modern building, a rectangular space off which other rooms open.
attic
in Classical architecture, a low story placed above the main entablature.
axis
an imaginary straight line passing through the center of a figure, form, or structure and about which that
figure is imagined to rotate.
barrel vault, tunnel
vault
a semicylindrical vault, with parallel abutments and an identical cross section throughout, covering an
oblong space.
basilica
(a) in Roman architecture, an oblong building used for tribunals and other public functions; (b) in
Christian architecture, an early church with similar features to the Roman prototype.
bodhisattva
one of many enlightened Buddhist deities who delay their own nirvana in order to help mortals attain
enlightenment.
bust
a sculptural or pictorial representation of the upper part of the human figure, including the head and
neck (and sometimes part of the shoulders and chest).
buttress
an external architectural support that counteracts the lateral thrust of an arch or wall.
castrum, castra
an ancient Roman fortress; a Roman encampment.
cella
the main inner room of a temple, often containing the cult image of the deity.
centering
the temporary wooden framework used in the construction of arches, vaults, and domes.
chattra
a royal parasol crowning the dome (an.d.a) of a Buddhist stupa, symbolically honoring the Buddha.
circus
in ancient Rome, an oblong space, surrounded by seats, used for chariot races, games, and other
spectacles.
coffer, coffering
a recessed geometrical panel in a ceiling.
Concrete
concrete strengthened by embedding an internal structure of wire mesh or rods.
dome
a vaulted (frequently hemispherical) roof or ceiling, erected on a circular base, which may be envisaged
as the result of rotating an arch through 180 degrees about a central axis.
dressed stone
blocks of stone that have been cut and shaped to fit in a particular place for a particular purpose.
forum
the civic center of an ancient Roman city, containing temple, marketplace, and official buildings.
groin vault, crossvault
the ceiling configuration formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults.
harmika
a square platform surmounting the dome of a Buddhist stupa.
highlight
in painting, an area of high value color.
insula
an ancient Roman building or group of buildings standing together and forming an apartment block.
keystone
the wedge-shaped stone at the center of an arch, rib, or vault that is inserted last, locking the other
stones into place.
mudra
a symbolic hand gesture, usually made by a deity, in Hindu or Buddhist art. Common Buddhist mudra¯s
include abhaya mudra¯ (right hand raised, palm outward and vertical), meaning "fear not"; dhya¯na
mudr¯a (hands in lap, one resting on the other, palms up, thumb tips touching), signifying meditation;
[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
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Dharmachakramudr¯a (hands at chest level, palms out, thumb and forefinger of each forming a circle),
representing the beginning of Buddhist teaching; and bhumisparshamudr¯a (left hand in lap, right hand
reaching down, palm in and vertical, to ground level), symbolizing Shakyamuni Buddha's calling the earth
to bear witness at the moment of his enlightenment.
nave
in basilicas and churches, the long, narrow central area used to house the congregation.
oculus
a round opening in a wall or at the apex of a dome.
peripteral
surrounded by a row of columns or peristyle.
pier
a vertical support used to bear loads in an arched or vaulted structure.
podium
(a) the masonry forming the base of a temple; (b) a raised platform or pedestal.
portico
(a) a colonnade; (b) a porch with a roof supported by columns, usually at the entrance to a building.
prana
the fullness of life-giving breath that appears to animate some south and southeast Asian sculpture.
rotunda
a circular building, usually covered by a dome.
rustication
to give a rustic appearance to masonry blocks by roughening their surface and beveling their edges so
that the joints are indented.
Serapaeum
a building or shrine sacred to the Egyptian god Serapis.
spandrel
the triangular area between (a) the side of an arch and the right angle that encloses it or (b) two adjacent
arches.
spolia
materials taken from an earlier building for re-use in a new one.
springing
(a) the architectural member of an arch that is the first to curve inward from the vertical; (b) the point at
which this curvature begins.
stupas
in Buddhist architecture, a dome-shaped or rounded structure made of brick, earth, or stone, containing
the relic of a Buddha or other honored individual.
stylus
a pointed instrument used in antiquity for writing on clay, wax, papyrus, and parchment; a pointed metal
instrument used to scratch an image on the plate used to produce an etching.
tessera, tesserae
a small piece of colored glass, marble, or stone used in a mosaic.
tondo
(a) a circular painting; (b) a medallion with relief sculpture.
tracery
a decorative, interlaced design (as in the stonework in Gothic windows).
travertine
a hard limestone used as a building material by the Etruscans and Romans.
tribhanga
in Buddhist art, the "three bends posture," in which the head, chest, and lower portion of the body are
angled instead of being aligned vertically.
vault, vaulting
a roof or ceiling of masonry constructed on the arch principle; see also barrel vault, groin vault, quadrant
vaulting, ribbed vault.
vedika
a railing marking off sacred space in south Asian architecture, often found surrounding a Buddhist stupa
or encircling the axis-pillar atop its dome(an.d.a).
villa
(a) in antiquity and the Renaissance, a large country house; (b) in modern times, a detached house in the
country or suburbs.
voussoir
one of the individual, wedge-shaped blocks of stone that make up an arch.
UNIT 7 STUDY GUIDE
Roman Art
(AP Art History)
Book
Chapter 10—From Seven Hills to Three Continents: The Art of Ancient Rome, Pages 247-300
Helpful Text Boxes—
[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
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An outline of Roman History p. 248
The Roman Architectural Revolution: Concrete Construction p. 250
Assignment
Read Chapter 10 and answer the following questions in about a half page handwritten (legibly) in your notebook:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Roman art was greatly influenced by both the Etruscans and the Greeks—yet how did the Romans move beyond
these influences to create their own unique art?
What problems did the Romans encounter as their small republic grew to become an empire? How did this affect the
government? What changes occurred as the Roman Empire began to weaken?
Why do we call Roman architecture an architecture of space rather than mass? What technologies make this new
ability to span space possible?
What are the Four Styles of Roman painting? (clearly displayed through the paintings at Pompeii)
The Romans are said to have created an effective urban architecture. Discuss this by citing the Coliseum, aqueducts,
baths, etc.
Also, pick 15 terms from the “Terms” section that you do not known and define them in your notebook. Use your own words
and images to define and describe the term.
Terms
(be able to identify these by sight, explain these in relation to art, and know an example of each in relation to a work of art)
Art Works
(know these works by sight, title, date, medium, scale, and location (original location also if moved) and be able to explain and
analyze these in relation to any concept, term, element, or principle)
Roman Republic





Temple of Portunus (Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”), Rome, Italy, ca. 75 BCE.
Restored view of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy, late second century BCE (John Burge).
Head of a Roman patrician, from Otricoli, Italy, c.75-80BC
Roman Patrician with Busts of his Ancestors, late 1CBC
(Roman paintings from ruins around Mount Vesuvius, dated through August 24, 79AD) ***
−
Still-life with peaches, detail of 4th Style wall painting from Herculaneum, c.62-79AD
Early Empire








Portrait of Augustus as general, from Primaporta, Italy, early-first-century CE copy of a bronze original of ca. 20 BCE.
Marble, 6’ 8” high.
Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace looking northeast), Rome, Italy, 13–9 BCE.
Procession of the imperial family (The Imperial Procession), detail of south frieze
Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes, France, ca. 16 BCE.
Aerial view of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome, Italy, ca. 70–80 CE.
Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE.
Spoils of Jerusalem, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE. Marble, 7’ 10” high.
Triumph of Titus, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after 81 CE. Marble, 7’ 10” high.
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High Empire




Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE.
Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118 – 125 CE.
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, 11’ 6” high.
Portrait of a Boy, Faiyum, Lower Egypt, 2nd C.
Late Empire





Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, from Rome, Italy, 251–253 CE. Bronze, 7’ 11” high.
Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca. 305 CE. Porphyry, 4’ 3” high. Saint Mark’s, Venice.
Arch of Constantine (south side), Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE.
Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315–330 CE. Marble, 8’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini,
Rome.
The Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), Rome, 306-312
Chronology
Art Works
know these works by sight, title, date, medium, scale, and location (original location also if moved) and be able to explain and
analyze these in relation to any concept, term, element, or principle
Summary and Study Guide
Teaching AP* Art History
Chapter Guide to Gardner’s 12th Edition
Chapter 10
From Seven Hills to Three Continents
The Art of Ancient Rome
1. Lecture Strategies and Key Ideas.
This chapter introduces the art of the Romans. Together with the previous chapter on Greek art, it is a crucial text for AP*
students as it forms the second half of their classical art studies.
Students should be aware of the geography of Italy and teachers might pass out maps for students to study. (See MAP 9-1 and
MAP 10-1). It is not absolutely necessary for students to be well versed in Roman history, but a short background lecture,
illustrated with a map transparency, would help them understand its art within the context of Roman civilization and
conquests. The list on page 262 will help students see the chronological development of Rome.
As always, it is useful for students to examine two slides at once, and in the case of this chapter it is helpful for students to view
a Roman art slide while also seeing a Greek one. Showing a Greek temple and a Roman one simultaneously, for example, will
show the similarities but more importantly it would also point out the dissimilarities. The two cultures’ art alternately was
idealistic and real, and students might ponder how the Greek statuary moved from high classical ideals to a Hellenistic “real
world” portrayal, just as the Romans would move from realism during the Republic period to Roman classicism later.
But it is in architecture that the Romans made their greatest contributions and students can be assured that they will be
expected to know the great public buildings when they confront the AP* Art History Exam. Fortunately, most students will find
the subject fascinating, and they will already be somewhat familiar with structures such as the Colosseum and Pantheon. (The
graceful beauty of the Pont du Gard will probably be a pleasant but new sight for them.)
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Patronage. The long list of emperor’s names need not be memorized, but AP* students should know Caesar Augustus, Hadrian,
Marcus Arelius and Constantine and the parts they played as patrons of the arts.
Heads Up Note. It would be well for teachers to divide the chapter into four lessons and give quizzes at the end of each. These
four sub-chapters are listed below along with the key vocabulary that is associated with each part. Again, be particularly certain
that students are versed in the architectural achievements of the Romans.
1. Republic. 509 BCE-27 BCE.
This is the period that saw, in 211 BCE, the beginning of the Roman “craze for Greek art.” In architecture, students should be
aware of the place
concrete
had in the Roman ability to create molded and complex forms. This Roman “architectural revolution” (see page 250) allowed
the building of “spatial envelopes.” Students should be able to visualize the
arch, barrel vault
,
groin vault and dome
construction. In sculpture, Republican Roman art is characterized by a brutal realism called
verism
. Roman genius for city planning is found at Pompeii. In painting, the text differentiates among the first, second, third and
fourth styles. Students should know the characteristics of each, and appreciate that Roman painters were familiar with
single point perspective
and
aerial perspective
, although these views were not always employed.
Key Vocabulary for Republican Art.
Temple of “Fortuna Virilis” concrete arch
Dome
Verism
barrel vault groin vault
forum basilica
Nave aisles impluvium Pompeii
point perspective aerial perspective
2. Early Empire. 27 BCE- 96 CE. This era begins with the reign of Caesar Augustus and leads to his Pax Romana. Just as Alexander
helped spread classical ideals, so the Romans took with them during this period their art ideals as they conquered nations east
and west. The statue of Augustus of Primaporta is illustrative of the iconography and return to classicism of the period.
Students should know the panels of the Ara Pacis and its narrative as state propaganda. (A good example of a contextual
question in AP Art history is to have students describe the style and purpose of the Ara Pacis panels.) There are also public
structures that students should know, especially the Pont du Gard, Maison Carrée, Colosseum, and Arch of Titus with its
narrative of the Roman conquest of Palestine.
Key Vocabulary for Early Empire Art.
Augustus of Primaporta Ara Pacis Pont du Gard
Maison Carrée Pont du Gard, Maison Carrée
Colosseum triumphal arch Arch of Titus
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Spoils of Jerusalem
3. High Empire. 97BCE-192 CE The period when the Roman Empire was at its peak. The patronage of the various emperors led
to the building of some of Rome’s grandest structures, including Trajan and his arch and column, and the justly famous domed
Pantheon and Villa built on orders from Hadrian. The Pantheon should be known by students for its Archtecture of space. The
equestrian statue of Marcus Arelius is the first of a long line of “man on horseback” statues that students will find in art history.
Key Vocabulary for High Empire Art.
Arch of Trajan Trajan’s column Pantheon
Hadrian’s Villa Ostia
equestrian statue mummy portrait apotheosis
4. Late Empire. 193 CE- 395 CE. This is the era of the ruthless rulers and, for the Empire, the beginning of the end. In art, we find
also the demise of classicism in public art (See, for example, FIG. 10-66) and the beginning of art ideals that would last through
the Middle Ages. The Four Tetrarchs (FIG. 10-74) is a charming introduction to these medieval art developments. The main
monument showing the transition away from classicism to medieval art is found on the Arch of Constantine, and students
should be able to tell the arch’s history and describe its reliefs.
Key Vocabulary for Late Empire Art.
Four Tetrarchs Arch of Constantine Basilica Nova
Constantine’s Christianity
Gender. Women are shown on the panels of the Ara Pacis as mothers with children at their sides. This depiction had a political
purpose, as it was the Emperors wish to have an increase in Roman population.
Narrative in Art. Examples are the Ara Pacis and its narrative as state propaganda and the panels of the Arch of Titus with its
story of the conquest of Palestine. The interesting story of how Roman art turned from its classical roots to a medieval
appearance can be found in Battle of Romans and Barbarians [Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus] (FIG. 10-71) and in the reliefs of the
Arch of Constantine, where artists mixed old classical motifs and style with those of the medieval world.
3. Key Images from Gardner’s Art Through the Ages. [Image numbers from 12th ed.]
Artist Gardner Subject Key Idea
FIG. Number
Republic 10-2 Temple Virilus Greek & Etruscan
Republic 10-3 Temple of Vesta Like Greek tholos
Republic 10-4 Fortuna Primigenia Concrete
Architecture See page 251 Variations on the arch
Architecture 10-10 Pompeii City planning
Architecture 10-13 House atrium House planning
Painting 10-14 Wall First style
Painting 10-15 Mystery frieze Second style
Painting 10-18 Wall Third style
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Painting 10-20/21 Wall Fourth style
Early Empire 10-25 Augustus Classicism
Early Empire 10-27/29 Ara Pacis Political messages
Early Empire 10-31 Pont du Gard Public edifice
Early Empire 10-30 Maison Carrée Public temple
Early Empire 10-34 Colosseum Public spectacles
High Empire 10-37 Arch of Titus Triumphal arch
High Empire 10-42 Trajan’s column Spiral column
High Empire 10-49/50 Pantheon Unique space
High Empire 10-59 Statue of Aurelius First equestrian
Late Empire 10-71 Ludovisi Reject perspective
Late Empire 10-74 Four Tetrarchs Reject classicism
Late Empire 10-76 Arch of Constantine Transition
Late Empire 10-79/80 Basilica Model for church
4. Quizzes, Tests and Study Materials
Be sure to reference the general art resources available for this Gardner book at http://art.wadsworth.com/gardner12. From
here there are online quizzes, a complete study guide, Internet activities, vocabulary flashcards, and more.
Website(s). Good sources of online websites that contain images for all Art History are found at
http://www.art-design.umich.edu/mother/ and at
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHLinks.html
Study Questions-ROME
THE REPUBLIC
1.
Which cultures’ art most strongly influenced that of Rome?
Greek and Etruscan (page 94)
2.
What two features of the Temple of “Fortuna Virilis” (FIG. 3-9) were drawn from Etruscan temples? (page 94)
a. Front entrance only; plan consists of a high podium with steps only at the front.
b. Plan includes a deep porch; free-standing columns only located in porch
From Greek temples?
a. Structure built of stone
b. Use of Ionic columns
What element is distinctly Roman?
The temple is a pseudoperipteral temple with engaged columns around the cella’s sides and back. This is a
uniquely Roman design that combines the basic Etruscan plan with the Greek peripteral temple. (page 94)
[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
3.
P A G E | 13
What was the major function of Roman Republican portrait sculpture?
Roman Republican portrait sculpture documented a family’s lineage and ancestry. These portraits were kept
in the home and publicly displayed at funerals. (pages 94-95)
What stylistic features differentiate Roman Republican portraits from Greek examples?
Roman Republican portraits were veristic and rendered the likeness of the individuals portrayed, whereas
Greek portraits were idealized. (page 96)
POMPEII AND THE CITIES OF VESUVIUS
1.
What catastrophic event has enabled modern scholars to learn so much about life in a Roman town?
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE covered the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum in ash and preserved them.
(page 96)
2.
Define or identify the following terms:
Amphitheater
Roman theatre with an elliptical plan, composed of two joined Greek theatres (page 98)
barrel vault
A vault that consists of an arch extended in space (page 97)
cross vault
(groin vault) A vault formed by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults (page 97)
forum
3.
4.
5.
A public square, the center of civic life in Roman towns (page 96)
Briefly describe the following painting styles found in Pompeii and its vicinity and/or in Rome:
First Style-
Imitates marble panels with painted stucco reliefs (page 98)
Second Style-
Paintings composed of illusionistic three-dimensional scenes meant to negate the presence
of the walls (pages 99-100)
Third Style-
Paintings with monochromatic backgrounds and decorative fantasy images with linear
designs, meant to reinforce the presence of the walls (page 102)
Fourth Style-
Mix of First and Third Style; comprised of crowded compositions of framed paintings and
architectural vistas (page 102)
List three pictorial devices used by Roman painters to suggest depth.
A
single-point linear perspective (page 100)
b.
atmospheric perspective (page 101)
c.
use of shadows and highlights (page 103)
Note the function of each room of a Roman villa: (page 99)
Atrium
large central reception area in a Roman villa
Impluvium
basin in the atrium of a Roman villa used to catch rainwater
Cubiculum
small bedrooms located around the atrium
Tablinum
the home office in the back of a Roman villa
[CHP. 7: ANCIENT ROME]
Triclinium
the dining room in a Roman villa
Peristyle
a colonnaded garden located at the rear of a Roman villa
P A G E | 14
Design a Roman house that incorporates at least five of the features listed above.
Draw the plan and label the rooms. Use a larger paper if you like.
Where do you think the kitchen and the sanitary facilities would be found?
They likely were located in the back of the villa or to the sides of the atrium, in removed locations. (page 99)
What type of decorations would you use in the various rooms of the house you are designing?
Select from the styles illustrated above.
Answers may vary; possibilities include: First Style, Second Style, Third Style, Fourth Style (pages 98-102)
What features of the house would you like to have in a contemporary dwelling?
(Answers may vary and depend on students’ opinions)
THE EARLY EMPIRE
1.
What stylistic sources inspired the Augustus of Primaporta (FIG. 3-21)?
The Augustus of Primaporta is based on Classical Greek sculpture, namely Polykleitos’ Doryphoros (see FIG.
2-31) in terms of its shape. Augustus’ raised arm is attributed to Etruscan sculpture, specifically the Orator
(see FIG 3-7). (page 104)
What was the political message of the figure?
The August of Primaporta make reference to Augustus’ divine heritage (the Cupid at his feet) and military
prowess (his shield commemorates victory over the Parthians), thereby demonstrating his right to rule.
(page 104)
2.
What was the purpose of the Ara Pacis Augustae (FIG. 3-22), and how did the iconography reflect that purpose?
The Ara Pacis Augustae commemorates the establishment of peace throughout the Roman Empire. The
vegetal and floral motifs refer to the prosperity that peace brings. (page 105)
3.
What was the purpose of the Pont-du-Gard?
The Pont-du-Gard served as a bridge and aqueduct, bringing water to the Roman city of Nîmes. (page 106)
What engineering principles was it based upon?
The Pont-du-Gard’s design is based on gravity flow; water flows toward Nîmes because the aqueduct is
sloped downward from the water source. (page 106)
4.
What name is commonly used for the Flavian Amphitheater?
Colosseum (page 107)
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How many people could it hold?
50,000 people (page 107)
What material was vital for its construction?
concrete (page 107)
5.
How did Flavian portraits differ from those done during the Republican period?
Artists used drills in addition to the hammer and chisel to create Flavian portraits. The figures are more idealized than
portraits of the Republican period. (page 108)
6.
The subjects depicted in the reliefs on the Arch of Titus were: (page 108-109)
a. Roman army carrying the spoils of war from the Temple of Jerusalem
b. Titus entering Rome triumphantly in his chariot
What was their political significance?
Aside from commemorating Titus’ military victories, the Arch of Titus celebrates Roman imperial values.
(page 109)
THE HIGH EMPIRE
1.
What major complex did Trajan build in Rome?
Forum of Trajan (page 110)
Who was its architect?
Apollodorus of Damascus (page 110)
What was portrayed on the Column of Trajan?
The Column of Trajan commemorates and retells Trajan’s successful military campaigns against the Dacians.
(page 110)
Describe the technique used to create the frieze:
To make the narrative clear and visible, the relief was originally painted and used easily recognizable
compositions and low relief. (page 110)
2.
What revolutionary architectural concept finds its fullest expression in the Roman Pantheon (FIGS. 3-34 & 3-35)?
The full potential of concrete is revealed and utilized in the Roman Pantheon. The dome is made of gradually lighter
types of concrete toward the oculus at the top, allowing the enclosure of open, uninterrupted space. (pages 112-113)
3.
Name the emperor who was portrayed on horseback:
Marcus Aurelius (page 113)
What are such portraits called? Equestrian statues/portraits (page 113)
4.
What is encaustic painting?
Encaustic is made of hot wax mixed with pigments and is used to paint surfaces. (page 113)
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How did the Roman emperors use encaustic painting?
Applied to marble statuary, encaustic would have colored the portraits of Roman emperors. (page 113)
THE LATE EMPIRE
1. Define or identify the following terms:
caldarium-
Hot-water bath in a Roman bathing complex (page 114)
frigidarium-
Cold-water bath in a Roman bathing complex (page 114)
tempera-
painting medium made of pigments and egg yolk, glue, or casein (page 551)
tepidarium-
Warm-water bath in a Roman bathing complex. (page 114)
2. What functions, other than sanitary, did Roman baths fulfill?
They fulfilled a number of recreational purposes. Roman bathing complexes included facilities such as libraries,
gardens, lecture halls, exercise areas, and swimming pools. (page 115)
What type of vaults were used for the frigidarium of the Baths of Caracalla (FIG. 3-38)?
Groin vaults (cross vaults) (pages 114-115)
3. How does the portrait of Trajan Decius (FIG. 3-40) reflect the art of the so-called “soldier emperors”?
Trajan Decius is depicted as an old man with a worried and anxious expression. His brow is furrowed and his eyes are
filled with concern. Portraits of the “soldier emperors” were both veristic and emotional. (pages 115-116)
5. List three stylistic characteristics of the 4th-century portraits of the tetrarchs (FIG. 3-42). (pages 116-117)
a. Extreme rigidity, details are described by schematics
b. Human form represented in iconic terms, not naturally
c. Figures are emotionless and no longer represented as individuals
5. What type of architectural elements was used to construct Constantine’s Basilica Nova (FIG. 3-41)?
Constantine’s Basilica Nova was built with barrel vaults over the aisles and fenestrated groin vaults over the nave,
which allowed light to enter the building. (pages 118-119)
6. What reasons can be given for Constantine’s reuse of 2nd-century sculpture on his triumphal arch?
Constantine wanted to be associated with the famous emperors of the 2nd century. (page 119)
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
Compare the Apulu (Apollo) from Veii (FIG. 3-2) with the Riace Warrior (FIG. 2 29). Explain how the typical
Etruscan features of the former contrast with the typical Greek features of the latter.
2.
How do the style, color, subject matter, and mood of an Etruscan fresco (FIG. 3-5) compare with those of a
contemporary Greek vase painting (FIG. 2-43)?
3.
Compare the Etruscan sarcophagus with the reclining couple on FIG. 3-3 and the fresco on FIG. 3-5 with the
Greek funerary stele on FIG. 2-42. What do these monuments say about relationships between people in these
societies and about their ideas toward death? What do art images tell us about the relative positions of Greek and
Etruscan women?
4.
Discuss the influence of both Greek and Etruscan architecture on Roman temple design.
5.
Select an example of Roman painting representing each of the Pompeian styles (First, Second, Third, and
Fourth), and explain the characteristics of each. Note the devices used to create the illusion of space.
6. Name two works commissioned by Augustus and describe their political significance.
7.
How were both realistic and idealistic characteristics incorporated into the Ara Pacis Augustae? In what
respects did the reliefs from the Ara Pacis Augustae (FIG. 3-23) resemble the Parthenon frieze (FIG. 3-38) and how do
they differ?
8. How did the Greeks and the Romans differ in their conceptions of architectural space? Include in your discussion
the Greek Parthenon (FIGS. 2-33 & 2-34), the Roman Pantheon (FIGS. 3-33 to 3-35), the Baths of Caracalla (FIG. 3-38)
and the Basilica of Constantine (FIG. 3-34). How did the building techniques used in each determine the types of
spaces that could be constructed?
9.
Discuss the development of Roman portraiture by comparing and contrasting the heads of a Republican
Roman (FIG. 3-10), Augustus (FIG. 3-21), Vespasian (FIG. 10-35), Caracalla (FIG. 3-39), Trajan Decius (FIG. 3-40), and
Constantine (FIG. 3-43). How do the various portraits relate to the concept of “likeness” and/or to political
statements?
10.
Analyze the stylistic differences between the reliefs from the Parthenon (FIG. 2-38) and the reliefs from the
Arch of Constantine (FIG. 3-46). In what ways do the style and subject matter of these reliefs reflect the social,
religious, and political concerns of the society for which each was made?
11. In what ways was the decline of Roman power reflected in art during the 3rd and 4th centuries?