Questions for: "I Caesar" (Disk I)
Note: For the first episode you might think about taking
extra notes given that it is on Julius Caesar, the topic of
the book you are reading.
Julius Caesar
("I am not King but Caesar")
"To know nothing of what happened before you were born is to remain
forever a child" Cicero
1) Describe Julius Caesar's childhood.
Born 100 BC; Gaius Julius Caesar brought up in luxury; father watched
as he drove a goat chariot imitating triumph; groomed to follow father;
tough childhood, strict, beaten, pursue highest political ambition and
carry on family name, instill sense pride Rome's past, physical training
valued as much as schooling; at 15 introduced to political life wearing
toga accompanying father to forum;
2) What was causing instability in Rome in the 1st century BCE?
Under the Republic Rome had conquered much of Mediterranean and
wealth pouring in but the Republic's very expansion was causing
political instability; aristocratic system with aristocrats competing with
each other for favor of volatile electorate; increasingly called in soldiers
to settle differences with consequence of repeated civil war between
rival factions.
3) What was happening to Caesar's family politically as he was coming
of age?
Weakened status; being pushed to periphery of Senate; growing up in
this situation plus civil wars between aristocratic factions shaped Gaius'
youth; frustration; while still 15 his father died leaving him head of
family; spurred him to be ambitious; married to high ranking political
family at 16;
4) What happened while Caesar was 16 years old?
Civil war broke out and his fortune was confiscated by a rival faction;
took flight from Rome and took refuge as officer in army; but
determined to return.
"I would sooner be the first man in a barbarian village than a second in
Rome." Gaius Julius Caesar
5) What happened after Caesar returned from Asia Minor winning
commendations for victories?
Returned to Rome a man, ready for a "very different campaign,"
"He was particular of his personal appearance, clean-shaven, sensitive
of his premature balding, and though subject to epilepsy his physical
endurance was phenomenal." Plutarch
"Well built with dark lively eyes, he not only had his hair carefully
trimmed but also had his body hair removed with tweezers"
Suetonius
6) Why did Caesar sail east to Rhodes?
To learn oratory from famous Greek teacher. Captured by pirates; told
them to shut up when he wanted to sleep; called them savage
barbarians when they wouldn't admire his poetry; when gathered
ransom and was released he captured them, had them crucified, but
because he admired them had their throats cut to hasten death.
7) How did historian Keith Hopkins describe the Republic?
Complex system with balance of power between citizens who were
soldiers and aristocrats; but also created a balance of power among
aristocrats so that no one group gained absolute power; tenure in office
short and shared so that no one aristocrat could ever gain too much
power.
Each year two senators elected to rule jointly as "consul." Consul was
Rome's highest office and was open only to senators over 42 years old.
8) What happened after Caesar secured an administrative post in one of
Rome's Spanish provinces when he saw a statue of Alexander the Great?
Dawned on him that by the age of 31 Alexander had conquered the
known world while he was dealing with accounts and petitions. He
broke down and wept. After a year away he returned and by virtue of
his post in Spain he was granted automatic admission to Senate and
could wear a broad band of purple on his tunic.
9) What did Caesar do when his first wife died?
Married Pompea which brought him an alliance with a powerful family
and a fortune.
10) What he does when powerful senatorial factions did not accept him?
Turned to campaigning among the poor; did what others would not do-shaking hands with poor in wretched slums.
"He showed himself perfectly ready to serve and flatter everybody, even
ordinary persons. He did not mind temporarily groveling."
Cassius Dio
11) What position did he secure and what he do with it?
Responsibility for Rome's entertainment; spent enormous amounts of
borrowed money on staging the most extravagant games ever seen;
floor of the arena flooded for mock naval battles; vast numbers of wild
beasts from North Africa; 320 pairs of gladiators dressed in silver fought
to the death for the crowd's amusement.
12) What was his Caesar's gamble and what risk did he run?
Spending on bribes for available voters and financing lavish
entertainment; would run out of money; debts mounting fast; if his
political gamble failed he was face exile or even death.
Note how these historians argue Caesar was securing a power base.
"He was lavish in his spending and was thought to be purchasing a
short-lived fame at great expense. Plutarch
"Caesar was reported to have paid such immense prices for 'well-built'
slaves he was ashamed and forbade the payments to be entered into the
account books." Suetonius
"Ordinary citizens liked him because of the friendly way in which he
mixed with people. Then there were his dinner parties and
entertainments and a certain splendor about his whole way of life. All
this made him politically more and more important." Plutarch
"All agree that he greatly loved pleasure, spent much money to gratify
his passions, and seduced very many ladies of quality." Suetonius
13) What did Caesar do at age 36?
Had established a power base, tested his public and private popularity,
and staked everything on running for supreme priest of Rome. Told his
mother that by nightfall he would be a priest or a pauper. Won, gaining
prestige, patronage, official residence behind the walls of the forum.
14) What did Caesar do to further his ambition to become consul?
Formed and alliance with Crassus, enormously rich aristocrat; the
second was Pompey immensely successful general who had recently
conquered Syria, Palestine, and much of the Near East. To cement the
deal he gave his young daughter to Pompey in marriage.
15) Why did Crassus and Pompey ally with Caesar?
He had become powerful so they had to ally with him or destroy him.
16. What did Caesar do once put into power as consul in 59 BC?
Did not want to share power with Bibulus and had followers pelt him
with dung and force him to stay inside where intimidated. Had thugs go
around beating up people.
17. What shocked the Senate and aristocracy?
Ignored all precedent with his legislation and appeared to be using the
consulship simply as a means to further power. Those who dared
oppose him faced the violent retribution of his supporters.
"The monstrosity of Caesar's is concealed in his gay and friendly
manner. No one knows what to do. If we resist, there will probably be
bloodshed." Cicero
"Politics was a competitive, beastly, affair in which your chances of
being bankrupted or being killed were greatly increased merely by
being in politics. Caesar was competitive, was more confident and
competitive for most people of his age and he won. But he won by
trampling on his political opponents." Prof. Keith Hopkins, University of
Cambridge
"Caesar carried the Roman empire beyond the limits of the inhabited
world." Plutarch
"The Roman aristocracy was engaged in competition with each other as
to how many wars they could fight, how many people's they could
conquer. Julius Caesar conquered more people's than any other general
before him." Prof. Keith Hopkins
18) What did Caesar's enemies in the Senate do when his consulship
was up and he prepared to take a position governing a major province?
Tried to appoint him governor of the Italian forests and cow paths. He
then used his power to secure governorship of Illyricum and Cisalpine
Gaul; then secured gov. Transalpine Gaul; enormous power base.
19) What happened when Caesar intercepted the Helvetii who were
migrating towards Roman lands? What did Caesar need?
Seized the moment to invade and conquer Gaul without being asked by
Senate. Needed a victory to secure position; unstated rule needed to kill
5,000 people; doubtless countless more killed but Roman army was a
machine programed not to question morality
"There were 70 triumphs in less than 200 years. Rome was committed
to expansion. The direction of expansion, the extent of its expansion
was completely unplanned. It was the successive decisions of
successive generals. The Romans were more viscous than any other
fighters in the Mediterranean world. When someone rebelled, a town
rebelled, the Romans set out to kill every living human and animal
within the rebellious town. They turned millions into captives into
slaves and brought them away from their home territory and brought
them to work in Italy. The Roman empire was a cruel and exploitative
system." Prof. Keith Hopkins
"He judged his men by their fighting record not by their morals or social
position. Sometimes if the victory had been complete enough he
relieved the troops of all military duty and let them carry on as wildly as
they pleased. One of his boasts was, 'My soldiers fight just as well when
they are stinking of perfume.'" Suetonius
20) What did he do in 55 BCE and then in 54 BCE? How did Caesar lead
his armies? What did Caesars conquest of Gaul enable him to do?
First to cross Rhine and then to Britain. Slowly, Gaul was conquered
and western Europe became part of the Roman empire. As general he
took command of every aspect of the battle, even picking up a shield and
leading in person. Now a rich and famous (by self-promoting accounts
sent home) he was ready to re-enter politics.
21) What did Caesar need and why was the Senate fearful? What did
they convince Pompey to do? What did the Senate demand and how did
Caesar respond?
Land for his soldiers. Feared powerful general coming back to Rome.
Convince Pompey he was too powerful; broke the alliance; demanded
he surrender his army; he was outraged and in effect declared war on
Rome.
22) What was the choice Caesar had to confront? What did he do?
Surrender armies, dignity, be tried for previous "crimes," be exiled or
killed, or ...Moved on Rome crossing the Rubicon declaring, "The die is
cast."
23) What did the country towns do as Caesar approached and what did
Caesar's opposition do?
Opened their gates and treated him like a god; they fled; Pompey
gathered loyal legions; civil war raged throughout North Africa and
Europe.
24) What happened at Pharsalus in Greece? What happened in
Alexandria?
Outnumbered 2:1 with only 22,000 troops but proved the more skillful
general. Deployed reserve tactically and crushed Pompey's army;
15,000 Pompey's finest killed; the rest captured; Pompey fled to Egypt;
on landing Egypt presented gift of the head of Pompey;
25) What did Caesar do with Cleopatra, the new queen of Egypt?
Sailed up the Nile like young lovers.
After the conquest of Pontus on the Black Sea Caesar said simply,
"Veni, Vidi, Vici"--"I came, I saw, I conquered."
26) What happened in 46 BC?
Caesar ready for triumphal entry into Rome; cloak of purple adorned
with sun and stars, vermillion on cheeks, huge phallus drawn by chariot
to celebrate his virility, but behind him a slave who every time the
crowd cheered said "Remember, you are just a man."
27) What did the Senate do out of respect and fear?
Elected him dictator for 10 years; usually a six month position.
The civil war had severely disrupted life in Rome and throughout Italy.
Government had collapsed. Retired veterans had been called away from
their farms. State funds had been spent on armies and weapons. Rome
was fortunate enough that no neighboring state had been strong enough
to take advantage of its temporary weakness.
28) How did Caesar respond to instability in Rome?
Worked feverishly to stabilize the Roman world after years of conflict.
Rewarding his soldiers with land as he had promised. Then grand
building projects--libraries, canals, harbors. He also commissioned the
creation of the lunar calendar with the solar calendar of 365 days per
year.
"Caesar was accustomed to write or dictate and read at the same time,
simultaneously dictating to his secretaries as many as six letters."
29) Why did many senators begin to become alarmed with Caesar's
behavior? How did the people feel about him?
Began to wear a robe of solid purple, increased the number of senators
to reward friends, housed lover Cleopatra and illegitimate son and
erected a statue to her. The people elected him dictator for life in 44 BC.
"Things must have gone to his head in some way, and then he claims or
is given supreme power in a way Romans, Roman aristocrats, thought
was completely unacceptable. Mind you we have to be careful because
the people who gave him the power must have thought that he deserved
it and that they could live with it. So it wasn't as if all Rome was against
Caesar, only the leading aristocrats could somehow not bear, then, the
thought of there being a single perpetual ruler and having a dictator,
which is what Caesar became, precluded other aristocrats the honors
which they thought were their birthright." Prof. Keith Hopkins
30) What did the faction of 50-60 senators decide to do in response to
the end of the Republic and Caesar's grip on power?
Hatched a plot to assassinate him on March 15th, three days before he
was to leave for his campaign in Parthia. Stabbed him 23 times in the
debating chamber in Pompey's theatre (Senate building under
renovation).
Questions for: "I Caesar"
Augustus, First of the Emperors
1) What did Mark Antony read to the public in the Forum after Julius
Caesar's assassination and what did it say?
His will; gifts to the people of Rome; family name and fortune to his
nearest male relative Octavius, his great nephew.
2) What happened when the 19 year old Octavius received news of his
inheritance?
He had spent a summer campaigning in Spain with his uncle; now in
Greece; his mother begged him not to get involved in the capital's
politics; he realized that he could be killed or simply drift into obscurity
if he didn't act; risk and bravado, and a bit of youthful ignorance...
3) What did the senators fear? What did they do?
Mark Antony was Caesar's right hand man; now he was elected one of
the city's two consuls; feared he would seek absolute power; decided to
bring in Octavius and support him against Antony and once reestablished Republic could get rid of him.
"Praise him. Honor him. Then get rid of him." Cicero
"Two men divided the whole Roman empire between them." Appian
Gaius Julius Caesar Octaianus
4) What did Octavian promise the Senate and what did they do?
He would exploit the fame his uncle's name had brought him to protect
Rome from anarchy and dictatorship; offered the Senate Caesar's loyal
army and in return demanded legitimacy; encouraged by Cicero the
Senate ignored precedent and made the teenager a senator; Cicero then
unleashed a flood of attacks on Antony;
5) Who did the Senate send north at the head of Caesar's army to attack
Antony? What situation was he in that was almost identical to Julius
Caesar's?
Octavian. Defeated Antony. If he disbanned his army he "would be
devoured by the aristocratic wolves. With an army he might stand a
chance. So, he marched on Rome demanding they make him consul.
"At the age of 19 he marched on Rome as if it were an enemy city and
sent messengers ahead in the name of his army to demand that he be
made consul. When the Senate hesitated to obey one Cornelius, a
centurian leading the deputation opened his military cloak, displayed
the hilt of his sword and boldly said, 'If you do not make him consul, this
will.'" Suetonius
6) Now that Octavian had outmanouvered the Senate before they got rid
of him, who did he turn to as an ally? Why?
Antony. Both wanted to avenge Caesar's murder and armies wanted to
join forces. Together with Lepidus, commander of the Gallic armies,
made a pact--divide the empire and eliminate any oppositions.
7) What did Octavian and Antony do in Rome to eliminate opposition?
Series bloody proscriptions; hundreds senators killed or exiled; Antony
made sure Cicero was among them; Octavian himself signed the death
warrants of his former allies in the Senate; he was utterly ruthless and it
was imperative that he got rid of any threat to his power.
8) What did Antony and Octavian do in Greece in the battle of Philippi?
Exacted revenge by defeating the assassins and then divided the empire
among them, edging out the weaker Lepidus.
9) Who got what and what "did they both know?"
Antony got the East with its rich potential for expansion; Octavian the
West; both knew they would eventually face each other.
10) What did Octavian due in 39 BC? What happened the following
year?
Married the wealthy Scribonia but shortly after the birth of their
daughter he quickly tired of her and despite the political value of her
connections he ended the marriage; following year met and fell in love
with 19 yo Livia who was already married with one child, Tiberius, and
pregnant with another; undeterred forced her husband to divorce her;
no real advantage so probably loved her, sticking to the marriage for
rest life. Also gave his beloved sister Octavia to Antony sending her to
his home in Athens.
"I divorced her because she nagged me."
11) Who had Antony already fallen in love with and what did she want?
Cleopatra who was rich, sensual, and cunning. Just as she had once
seduced Caesar now she seduced Antony; she saw him as the ruler of
Rome and wanted his armies to help her build a new empire in the East
centered on Egypt; Antony saw he could use her vast wealth to hold off
Octavian; he dispatched Octavia back to Rome without divorcing her
and married Cleopatra
12) What did Antony want to do with Cleopatra's wealth and what did
he say about Caesarian? How did Octavian respond in Rome?
He was true heir of Caesar's name and wealth. Accused him of being
bewitched by Cleopatra and Egyptian now that he had "rejected his
country's ways." Played upon Rome's fears that Antony would take over
and move the capital to Egypt--capitalizing on old fears of foreigners,
women, kings.
13) What did Octavian do for four years? Describe what happened at
Actium in 31 BC? What did Antony and Cleopatra do then?
Built fleet; great naval battle; Octavian's great general Agrippa won the
day but at great cost; many Romans and their backers had lost their
lives; Antony fled to Egypt and took his own life; Cleopatra sought an
audience with Octavian and reminded him of Julius' love for her; he was
unmoved and planned to parade her through the streets of Rome; Egypt
brought into the realm of Rome for the first time with all of its wealth;
then she committed suicide with the bite of a venomous asp; he then
ordered the death of the teenage Caesarian.
14) What dilemma did Octavian face and why?
How to be the sole ruler and survive; in ridding Rome of Antony he was
vulnerable as had been Caesar.
15) How did Octavian counter this threat?
Rewarded old aristocracy with positions in government; wealth of
Egypt used to put on lavish games and for patronage; some saw this for
what it was. But after a century of civil war and dictatorship Octavian
knew the people wanted a man of peace and stability who claimed to
respect republican values; if that was what they wanted that was what
they would get. Historians--complete turn around from brutal thuggish
persona to what the people wanted, on the surface at least. Rome was
not ready for a complete dictatorship/kingship/emperor. He evolved a
structure whereby Romans could believe they still had a republic.
"He seduced the army by gifts, the common people by the provision of
cheap food, and everyone by the blandishments of peace. Men of spirit
had died on the battlefield; the remainder were rewarded by wealth,
position in proportion to their readiness to accept servitude." Tacitus
16) What was Octavian's "spectacular manouver?" How did the Senate
respond and why?
He offered to surrender his power back over to the Senate. Feared
renewed civil war; refused and as he had calculated, increased his
power. As long the people said they needed him he wasn't a tyrant.
"The fact that it is in my power to rule over you for life is evident. But I
am mild by nature and have no desire to dominate. The power I hold
now I lay down. Allow me to live out my life in peace."
"The rule of a single an was the only possible remedy for a country in
turmoil." Tacitus
17) What title did Octavian take?
Princeps, or first among equals.
18) How did Octavian consolidate power behind the facade of equality?
First army--elite Praetorian Guards made his personal body guard;
commanders of 28 legions restricted to two-year tours of duty to stifle
ambition; governors and generals in provinces were selected from
family and freinds; in Rome won over volatile population by building
projects, cleaning the Tiber, improving water supplies, establishing fire
fighters, above all extensive building campaign--temples, public
buildings; incredible rewards system whereby even his enemies
dependent on him; after five years he had established peace; no one
wanted to return to civil war.
"I found Rome brick and left it marble." Octavian
19) What did the Senate decree as Octavian's new name?
Augustus (revered one).
Octavian had become the Emperor Caesar Augustus. His position was
without rival. He was master of the Roman empire and founder of the
Pax Romana: "The Roman Peace."
"I restored. I completed. I built. I gave." Augustus
20) What did Augustus promise in return for unquestioned loyalty?
Peace, stability, law, and security for all citizens.
"Rome under the emperors and under Augustus in particular benefitted
from unprecedented prosperity. Basically there was more money
available, taxes were flowing through Rome, Rome was being built up,
the grandeur of Rome began to expand during the reign of Augustus. It
was the first straw in the wind of two centuries of unprecedented
prosperity." Prof. Keith
21) What was happening in Rome's provinces?
After decades of destructive civil war they were benefitting from the pax
romana; new towns, aqueducts, theatres, roads, baths, bridges
commissioned throughout empire; trade prospered and agriculture
flourished.
22) What image did Augustus cultivate of himself? What was he really
like?
Plain man, slept on camp bed, eating simple food...presenting family as
returning to old values. Worked very hard and was known to be fair
and generous. Busts of Augustus always young; sent all over empire;
didn't age; godlike; popularity grew and summer month named after
him;
23) What did Augustus do in 18 BC? Did Augustus live up to his own
rules behind the scene?
Issued a moral code promoting marriage, fines for adultry. No slept
around, like virgins and the were brought to him in droves.
24) What did Augustus need as he grew old? What happened?
An heir so that he could create a dynasty. But dangerous to name a
successor so built up group. Saddened that Livia had born no children
to him. His child to Scribonia, Julia, became the key--grandsons.
Married Julia to successive husbands including Agrippa. Two of them,
Gaius and Lucius, were adopted by Augustus as own sons. Then when
Agrippa died Julia was passed on to Tiberius, her step-brother. She
rebelled and overtly violated her father's laws by sleeping around. She
was exiled for five years and prohibited from seeing men and drinking
wine. Rumored that Livia had plotted to bring her down to bring
Tiberius to power. Both Gaius and Lucius died young. Augustus' health
started to fail. In 9 AD three legions attacked by Elbe River and
anhiliated. Augustus couldn't cope. Told Tiberius not to push further. T
not intended to succeed him; not his blood line but now little choice. AD
5 adopted him as son.
"Immortality is a state which is not in our power to possess, but by
living nobly and dying nobly we do in a certain measure achieve this
condition." Augustus
25) What happened in AD 14?
Augustus died at 76 peacefully in bed; eagle released symbolizing
ascension into heavens; soon after he was declared a god.
"Since well I have played my part, all clap your hands and from the stage
dismiss me with applause." Augustus
Questions for: "I Caesar"
"Nero: The Power and the Madness"
"Let him kill me, only let him rule." Agrippina
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus = Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus
1) Describe Lucius' (Nero family and birth.
Born AD 37. Father died when he was four. Mother was Julia Agrippina,
sister of Caligula, who had been sent into exile. She grew up in the
dangerous world of imperial politics and knew she would have to fight
for her children. Uncle Claudius recalled her and she took her place at
court. Nero became accustomed to life at the court with all of the
attendant luxury. He liked music and poetry and didn't like studying.
2) What happened when Lucius (Nero) was eleven?
Messalina married her lover and proclaimed him emperor. Her
husband Claudius crushed the coup and ordered his wife to commit
suicide, vowing never to marry again. Using all of her charm Agrippina
seduced her uncle seizing her chance.
"She holds her dignity, her modesty, her body, everything cheaper than
a throne." Tacitus
3) What is Agrippina's objective? What were her first moves in
achieving this?
To make her son emperor. Had 9yo Octavia betrothed to Lucius and
then had Claudius adopt Lucius with the name Nero Claudius Caesar.
4) Who was Nero's tutor and what did he try to teach him?
Seneca, one of Rome's greatest minds. Tried to teach him about justice,
clemency, and good rule.
5) What happened to Claudius in AD 54?
Claudius collapsed; rumors Agrippina poisoned him. Had to strike
before Britanicus came of age and Nero at minimum age to become
emperor.
6) What did Nero soon discover after being made emperor? How did
Nero respond? What did Seneca encourage Nero to believe in?
Agrippina wanted to rule jointly; duel headed coins; surrounded himself
with trusted advisors--Burrus of Praetorian Guard and Seneca. Seneca
encouraged Nero to believe in clemency, justice, and the sanctity of
human life. He was tempted by the image he could gain by being a good
ruler. Rome enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity because of the
administrative structure he inherited.
7) What did Nero begin to explore, much to his mother's disgust?
Theatre. Took up acting, singing,
8) Why did Nero listen to his advisors and then decide that he would
follow his own instincts?
To keep his mother at bay. Then decided he wanted to pursue his
artistic side and didn't have to listen to them.
9) What happened when Nero experimented with the limits of absolute
power? How far did he go?
Felt there were no limits and surrounded by flatterers we gave in to his
sensual desires--extreme sex acts including violence, beat up people and
threw them into the sewers.
10) What happened when Agrippina saw that she had lost her grip on
Nero? What did he do?
Started to get closer to Britanicus. Nero poisoned him.
11) How did Nero treat his mother after this?
Sent away from his palace. Sent men to pester her and harass her.
When she threatened him he was terrified and decided she had to die.
Presented her with a boat at his villa at the Bay of Naples. The boat was
designed to fall apart but she swam to safety. He then sent his officers
to kill her.
12) What did Nero focus on once Agrippina was murdered?
Entertaining. Chariot racing which horrified aristocracy (for slaves),
games with exotic animals, mock sea battles, inaugurated the "Neroia"
where athletes competed, poets, chariot racing, oratory,
gymnastics...saw himself as a patron of the arts. Wanted to get people to
see that these were worthwhile activities and saw this as part of his job
as emperor.
13) What happened when Nero tried to slander his wife Octavia?
What did he do?
Public outcry. Daughter of divine Claudius. Banished and then had her
murdered, then married Poppaea. After she gave birth the infant girl
died.
14) What did Nero do as a result of having no heir?
Had all of his family executed. Future would depend on him.
15) How did Nero respond to the destruction of Rome due to fire? What
did he build for himself?
Firefighters, temporary housing, food costs cut. Then extensive building
plan with fire resistant stone; rumored he would call new city
"Neropolis", wide boulevards, green spaces etc. Also built a new palace
Domus Aureas.
16) What did Nero do when rumors spread that he had started the fire
so that he could build his palace?
Blamed Christians. Vast numbers crucified and burned, and fed to
animals in arena.
17) How did the upper classes respond to Nero taking to the stage?
Disgusted. Forced to stay through his performance.
18) What did Nero do after he discovered a conspiracy to kill him?
Executed 50 senators and officers, also Seneca. Spies everywhere. Lots
of executions govt officials and military figures. Everyone afraid.
19) What happened when Nero embarked on a grand artistic tour of
Greece?
Popular general Corbulo suspected of plotting against him; summoned
to Greece and forced to commit suicide. Some in high command began
to plot his assassination.
20) What happened when Nero panicked hearing that some of his
legions had turned against him?
General on the Rhine loyal and probably northern Italy but he was
possibly delusional by then and fled Rome in disguise. Senate
proclaimed him a public enemy; ordered his servant to stab him.
"What an artist die I!"
Questions for: "I Caesar"
"Within These Walls"
1) Where was Hadrian born and who was his cousin? Where did they
go?
Italica, Spain. Hadrian's father died when he was 9yo; Trajan was
responsible for him. Trajan given military commission and took
Hadrian. H educated there for five years; acquires love of arts and
culture. Then returns to Italica to pursue his other interests, outdoor
sports such as hunting.
"He was tall and elegant in appearance. His hair was curled on a comb
and he wore a full beard to cover up the blemishes on his face." The
Augustan Histories
2) What did Hadrian do when he was 18 years old?
Returned to Rome to begin a career in the Imperial Administration.
Within a year he joined the army and was posted on the south bank of
the River Danube. Here he proved himself naturally brave and talented.
He was promoted and sent to fight in the unstable provinces of the
unstable Balkans.
In September AD 96 a messenger reached the legionary camp to
announce that the Emperor Domitian had been assassinated. He had
been stabbed to death in a plot organized by his wife and a faction of
Rome's ruling council, the Senate. An elderly senator, Nerva, had taken
his place. The legions had taken the news badly. Domitian had been
popular with the army. He had visited them, campaigned with them, and
increased their pay. Nerva knew he needed the support of the military.
He looked to ally with the powerful commander along the River Rhine.
The commander's name was Trajan. Hadrian's cousin from Italica
became co-emperor of Rome.
"He was treated by Trajan as his own son." The Augustan Histories
3) What happened when Nerva died?
Trajan became emperor. This was a reflection of the dispersion of
power to those outside of central Roman aristocracy. Aristocrats from
provinces became senators and now even emperor.
"The aristocracy were powerless to prevent Trajan's appointment.
Before he had even left the Rhine they, too, were at his headquarters
seeking his favor. Hadrian was also an outsider, but he was now drawn
by his family ties into the inner circle of imperial power. He
concentrated his attention on Trajan's wife, Plotina who liked this
handsome young officer." (Narrator)
4) What did Plotina do for Hadrian?
Arranged his marriage to Sabina, one of her own relatives. Trajan
needed to place loyal supporters around him, many of whom were
Spaniards, in the Senate. Hadrian far younger than the customary age
but was appointed to the Senate.
"He read a speech of the emperor's to the Senate and provoked a laugh
by his provincial accent. Hadrian immediately gave attention until he
attained the utmost proficiency and fluency." The Augustan Histories
5) When Trajan campaigned in Dacia he asked Hadrian to come with
him. What did this do to Hadrian?
He became close to the army and this stayed with him. In the Second
Dacian War he led the First Legion "Minerva" which impressed Trajan.
Proved himself a fine commander cutting a swath through enemy tribes
leaving a trail of destruction. He was awarded the governorship of
lower Pannonia (modern Hungary).
6) What happened in AD 108?
Hadrian elected one of Rome's two consuls. Too young for the post but
could ignore the complaints with the backing of his cousin Trajan.
7) Who did Trajan then attack and where did Roman soldiers bathe for
the first time?
Parthians. Persian Gulf.
8) How did Hadrian share in his success? Of what was he given the
governorship?
The whole of the eastern empire with a base at Antioch.
9) What happened on the 9th of August, AD 117?
A declaration was read out by Plotina backed by another supporter
from Italica, Attainus (body guard). Together they announced that
shortly before dying Trajan had formally adopted Hadrian. But the
announcement was not enough to make him emperor; he turned to his
legions for support. Before any rival could assert claim the eastern
legions hailed Hadrian Caesar/emperor.
"He claimed that there was nothing about war or peace he did not
know" Cassius Dio
As emperor Hadrian assumed enormous responsibility for all the lands
around the Mediterranean.
"Hadrian, still in Antioch, wrote to the Senate in Rome asking it to
confirm him as emperor. He promised to respect senatorial priviledges
and never put a senator to death. The Senate relented knowing that the
powerful eastern legions had already chosen Hadrian. Soon afterwards
Hadrian stunned Rome by taking a momentous and far reaching
decision: the empire should expand no further." (Narrator)
No profit occupying areas of no profit. Hadrian wanted to consolidate
and Romanize and surround with barriers!!!!
Pulled back from Parthia and left rule to client kings who would act as
buffer. On Danube he burned only bridge across river even though
Roman settlers were on other side. Many senators appalled. Saw
conquest as way to wealth and glory and felt they had stronger claims to
the throne than a Spaniard who had been elected by soldiers thousands
of miles away from Rome. A coup was planned. Attianus, chief of
Praetorian guard foiled the plot putting four leading senators to death.
10) What did Hadrian do after he moved into the palace overlooking the
circus maximus?
Had become expected to perform an extravagent gesture upon
becoming emperor; he decided to gain the support of the people by
building an enormous bonfire upon which he threw a list of all unpaid
taxes and debts to the treasury, then continued with extravagant games.
"It would not be far from the truth to call their drills bloodless battles,
and their battles bloody drills." Josephus
11) Who held the key to Hadrian's rule? How important was the old
aristocracy? Where did power lie?
The legions. Compared to them the Senate was unimportant.
Enormous tension between Hadrian and the aristocracy. He did what
they hated most, ignored them. Power lay in the provinces.
12) What did Hadrian fear?
That his decision to end military conquest with its promise of glory and
booty would turn the army against him. East was loyal so travelled to
West to visit troops on the Rhine to make sure he had them in his camp.
"He kept the soldiers in training just as if war were imminent. He
inspired them by his own powers of endurance, actually led a soldier's
life, and cheerfully ate out of doors such fair as camp bacon, cheese, and
vinegre. And, that the troops might submit more willingly to his harsh
orders he bestoed gifts on many and honors on a few. He wore the
commonest clothing, would have no gold on his swordbelt or jewels on
his clasp. He visited the sick soldiers, banished luxuries, improved the
soldiers arms and equipment, and strove to have an accurate knowledge
of the military stores." The Augustan Histories
13) What did Hadrian do in AD 122? How did Hadrian deal with the
northern tribes?
Made the crossing to Britain. Julius had visited 170 years earlier;
Claudius had begun the conquest in AD 43. Decreed that a vast wall 73
miles long coast to coast to keep the barbarians out. Marked the edge of
civilization.
14) How did Hadrian view "citizenship?"
As a privelege but also something to be granted provincials as a reward.
Presided over expansion of citizenship. Great achievement: assimilate to
Roman ways and civilization.
"The governor of Britain would encourage individuals and communities
to erect temples, marketplaces, houses. He began to train the sons of
chieftans in liberal education. As a result the nation that used to reject
the Latin language began to aspire to rhetoric. Further, the wearing of
our dress became a distinction and the toga came into fashion. And
little by little the Britons were seduced by the lounge, the bath, the wellmade dinner table." Tacitus
15) How did Hadrian feel about Greece and Greek culture?
Regarded it as far superior to Rome's culture. Nicknamed the
"Greekling." Returned to Greece and his passion for Greek culture
increased with his love for Antinous. Made Athens new center of Greek
culture finished building temple, aqueduct, new city quarter and an
immense new library.
16) What great building did Hadrian commission? What did he spend
his evenings doing after working intensively?
Pantheon. Evenings debating Roman and Greek scholars.
17) Aside from making sure his legions remained loyal, what did
Hadrian do while touring the empire? What happened on the Nile?
Made sure they knew they belonged to a common world. New temples
and buildings etc. Empire now secure and stable/safe. Antinous
drowned; Hadrian crushed by loss; created city named after him and
cult.
18) What happened in Judea?
Jews did not assimilate. He tried to build a temple to Jupiter and himself
on site of the temple. In 132 AD they rebelled and Hadrian faced a
major war. Jews engaged in guerilla war; ultimately crushed in extreme
violence. Jews expelled from Jerusalem, Jews sold into slavery, and
province of Judea abolished and turned into "Syria-Palestina."
19) Where did Hadrian finally settle after spending 13 of his last 17
years touring the empire?
Tivoli. Grand villa.
20) What did Hadrian do as he grew ill in terms of an heir?
No children or close male relatives so decided best choice 51 yo senator
named Antoninus. Adopted. Change: increasingly heir was selected as
best choice to rule Rome.
Questions for: "I Caesar: Constantine"
"In his earliest youth the signs of imperial greatness were obvious in
him" Eutropius
1) What was happening to the Roman Empire during the 3rd century?
In crisis. Attacked from without and divided from within. Persians
were attacking in the East and making inroads. Germanic tribes
attacking in West, breaching frontier defenses, sacking cities, agriculture
laid waste, and taking Roman provincials off in slavery.
2) What did Constantine's father do while he was still in his teens?
Joined a plot with Diocletian to overthrow the emperor Numerian.
The coup succeeded.
3) What was Diocletian like and what did he do?
Bold and capable statesman. Decided to co-rule the empire with
Maximius and both called Augustus. Diocletian senior Augustus in the
eastern empire and Maximius junior Augustus in West. Decided still too
difficult to rule and created a "tetrarchy" or rule of four. Each would
take a junior partner called a caesar.
Constantine's father was a shrewd political opportunist. He left his wife
and married Maximius' daughter. Maximius made him his junior
partner in ruling the West.
Rome was no longer the seat of imperial power. It sat too far from the
frontiers and was superseded by a number of more strategic cities
where the four men were based. Diocletian at Nicomedia, Galerius at
Antioch, Maximius at Milan, and Constantine’s father Flavius
Constantius at Trier near the River Rhine.
4) How did Constantine distinguish himself and how did Diocletian view
him?
Diocletian stabilized the borders and then went on the offensive.
Constantine went with Galerius to campaign against the Sarmatians and
led them to victory. Then to the east against the Persians, conquering
Ctesiphon. Diocletian was simultaneously grooming him and wearily
watching him.
5) Who was "the new enemy?"
the Christians who were probably only 2% (10% at most) of the
population but they were most highly concentrated in the Greek
speaking eastern cities and somewhat around prominent members of
the government where they had a disproportionate impact.
Christianity had been growing steadily since its foundations three
centuries earlier. The church was well organized by a large network of
bishops and priests. For some Romans Christianity's promise of a
glorious afterlife and the expiation of sin had great appeal. But many
regarded the intolerant zeal of the Christians and their belief in one god
deeply offensive.
"The problem for the Christians was that they denied the existence of all
other divinities. Diocletian, convinced that his gods had helped him
stabilize the empire, had to ensure that as many of the inhabitants of the
empire as possible worshipped his gods. It's a contract--we worship
you; you help us. Christians break that contract.
Professor Michael Whitby, University of Warwick
6) What happened on the 24th of February, AD 303?
Diocletian issued an edict of persecution was announced. Churches
were demolished, Bibles burned, and suspected Christians rounded up.
Those who refused to recant were imprisoned, tortured, executed.
"Constantine, as someone who witnessed martyrdoms, will have seen
the ferocity of Christian commitment to their faith and may very well
have been impressed by it and wondered, 'Why are these people
behaving like this, behaving in a very un-Roman like fashion, but also
behaving in a very courageous fashion." Michael Whitby
7) What happened when Diocletian stepped down as emperor and
Galerius became emperor of the East?
Constantine's father became one of the two co-emperors and
Constantine expected to become a caesar. Galerius was worried about a
western dynasty and said no. Flavius Constantius asked that his son be
freed from his obligations in the east and Galerius said no. Constantine
fled to the West and joined his father. They crossed the channel to put
down a rebellion of the Picts and then he died. The troops made
Constantine the emperor of Britain and Gaul. He returned to Trier. He
needed legitimacy.
8) What did Constantine do vis-a-vis the Christians?
Ordered their release from prison and end of persecution thereby
securing the support of an important minority.
"Constantine, who was successfully ruling in Gaul overthrew the Franks
and Allemanni with great slaughter and captured their kings, whom on
exhibiting a magnificent show of games were exposed to wild beasts."
Eutropius
****9) What happened in early 312?
Maxentius had seized Rome, Italy, and North Africa. Constantine
crossed the Alps intending to take this territory for himself. After two
battles in the north then marched on Rome. Maxentius destroyed the
bridges on the Tiber. Constantine camped by the ruins of the Milvian
Bridge. As preparations being made he announced to troops he had had
a divine vision. Short but bloody battle. Inspired troops. Opposition
fled with many, including Maxentius, drowned in the Tiber. Now he was
Augustus of the entire western empire.
"He saw a pillar of light in the form of the cross on which was inscribed,
'In this, conquer.' The appearance of the sign struck him with
amazement. The emperor's mind was struck by this divine and
miraculous apparition." Socrates Scholasticus
In the East the emperor Galerius had died. He was succeeded by
Lucinius with whom Constantine immediately forged a pact. He gave
him his sister Constantia in marriage. The empire was now divided in
two. Constantine began to promote his popularity with the Roman
people. He inaugurated several extravagant building projects-completing a vast basilica, restoring the circus maximus, and building
the largest and last triumphal arch in Rome.
9) What did Constantine do next?
Became head of the Christian Church. Then broke his pact with Lucinius
and marched on the Balkans. Stalemate. Lucinius sued for peace and
agreed to recognize C as senior ruler. Not enough. Christians in the
East looking to him for protection and hoping he will come. He then
again provoked war with Lucinius. Huge battle fought at Adrianople
and although wounded in thigh led his army to victory. Then defeated
Lucinius at Byzantium. Despite his sister's pleas he had L executed.
Cynical power grab cloaked in Christian terms. Bloody and brutal.
10) What did Constantine do in Byzantium?
Built a new capital, "Constantinople." New capital grander than the
others, although took time. Architects and artists called in from all over.
Looted arts and brought to C. Tried to get aristocrats to relocate but
they refused. Although population was only 50,000 and Rome's was 1
million the center of power was gradually shifting. Like Diocletian he
adopted style of lavish eastern potentates, wearing elaborate costumes,
jewelry, wigs, and perfumes. Surrounded by courtiers.
In AD 325 Constantine summoned over 300 bishops to a council at the
city of Nicaea. The emperor forced them to agree for the first time to a
standard doctrine. The Nicene Creed has remained in use throughout
the Christian world ever since.
11) What did Constantine do to his son Crispus and his wife?
Arrested them and had them executed. Suspicious. Scandalous.
Possible Crispus and his wife Fausta having an affair. Passed severe
laws against adultery.
"The vast majority of his subjects are not Christians and he cannot force
them to become Christians. He can encourage them to do so by showing
them the benefits in terms of positions and rewards, but he cannot force
them. So he pursues a balancing act. Pagans are not persecuted but
pagan temples lose properties. Christians are rewarded and Christian
communities are given urban privileges. Individual Christians are given
positions in the imperial hierarchy, but it remains a balancing act."
Michael Whitby
"Constantine was superb at deploying Christianity. It gave him a
political ideology, which helped him unify the empire. On the back
of the Church, the back of ecclesiastical institutions, Constantine
developed an ideology which put him next to God which made him the
fend of Christ. Christianity was Constantine's great discovery which
was his way of presenting his power to the Roman Empire."
Dr. Chris Kelly, University of Cambridge
12) What was happening along the Rhine and Danube Rivers?
Barbarians growing stronger. Constantine once again led his armies
across the Danube pursuing the Goths and Sarmatians into their
homeland and enforced upon them a humiliating peace. Rewarded
those who accepted Roman rule.
13) What did Constantine offer the barbarians?
Entry into army, land...assimilation. Large numbers join making process
of assimilation problematic. Rising costs of assimilation and the balance
of those engaged in the army and administration and those in
agriculture problematic. Strong unified empire but as he fell ill at 65
and asked his bishops to baptize him.
14) What did he ask his bishops to do?
Baptism at deathbed common. Washed his sins as emperor away.
Weeks later he died.
"Constantine's adoption of Christianity is fundamental in thinking about
the history of the Roman empire. Without that adoption the history of
the next millennium would have looked very different. This move to
unity to one god, one empire, marks a crucial breakpoint in the empire.
Without Constantine's decision Christianity would have remained a
small minority of occasionally persecuted sect, and not have become the
religious foundation of Europe." Chris Kelly
Questions for: "I Caesar: Justinian"
"The city that once conquered the entire world has been conquered."
St. Jerome
1) Describe the Roman Empire at the time of Justinian's birth.
No Roman emperor in the West. Goths had taken Rome, barbarian
Germanic tribes pouring across Danube and Rhine. Dynastic kingdoms
ruled Western Europe. Vandals ruled North Africa.
2) Where did Justinian come from and how did he get to
Constantinople?
Born poor. Thrace/modern Serbia. Uncle became head of the palace
guard; summoned him to Constantinople. Rose through army. Part
military, part courtier.
3) What happened in 518 AD when the emperor Anastasias died?
No clear successor so palace guard made Justinian's uncle Justin
emperor after intrigue...secret meetings and bribes.
"Justin was uncouth and boorish. His nephew used to manage all the
affairs of state." Procopius
It was not long before his uncle adopted him and made him his heir.
Born Petrus his name was changed to Justinian.
4) What had become the most popular form of public entertainment
once gladiatorial combat had been banned?
Chariot racing. Four teams: reds, blues, greens, and whites. Each team
attracted large groups of followers. These circus performers were poor,
violent, etc. but powerful.
5) Who did Justinian meet and fall in love with?
Circus performer, Theodora. Against the law for a senator to marry an
actress so law was changed. Aristocracy appalled.
In 527 Justin died. Justinian and Theodora were escorted to the
hippodrome as emperor and empress.
"Court ceremonial in this period is already highly complex. It takes a
skilled courtier to work out what is correct royal etiquette. Justinian
and Theodora are both sticklers for court ceremony. That is partly
because they are concerned for their safety, but it's partly also because
both of them were from insignificant social backgrounds and they
needed to use the rhythm and the structure of court ceremonial to
emphasize their position and to keep a barrier up between themselves
and the Roman aristocracy and potential assassins."
Dr. Chris Kelly
Senators, once Rome's ruling officials were forced to prostrate
themselves in front of Justinian and his wife.
6) What major project did Justinian work on and implement?
Codification of laws. Believed in the rule of law as a way to control
society.
In the two centuries since the baptism of Constantine Rome had been
transformed from a pagan to a Christian empire, and Justinian was
eager to enforce strict moral codes upon his people.
7) What happened when Justinian attempted to clamp down on the
lawless activities of the circus factions?
Mass rioting broke out. Large areas of the cities were looted and
destroyed by fire. Huge crowds gathered at the hippodrome shouting
Nika and calling for his death. J prepared to flee but Theodora
convinced him not to. Crushed by J's general Belisarius; up to 30,000
executed.
"May I never be separated from the purple. If now it is your wish to
save yourself, emperor, there is no problem for we have much money,
and there is the sea, and here are the boats. However, having saved
yourself consider whether the day will not come when you would gladly
exchange that security for death. As for myself, I approve of a certain
ancient saying that royalty is a good burial shroud." Theodora
8) Once Justinian had squashed the riots and his war against the
Persians did not go well what did he do?
Paid off the Persians and then launched a campaign to try to retake
North Africa from the Vandals. Vandals had become romanized. The
defeated Vandal king was paraded in a procession along with booty.
With his success he decided to re-conquer the western empire. First
Rome and Italy.
"What is always important to remember about the Goths is that they are
not beer swilling barbarians. These are men who in some ways are
more Roman than the Romans. They are very careful to wear togas, to
use old republican offices. Italy had remained a very Roman place, in
some senses more Roman than the Greek eastern Constantinople."
Dr. Chris Kelly
9) What happened in AD 537?
Belisarius took Rome.
10) What did Justinian do to mark the occasion?
Built the great Hagia Sophia. Had been destroyed in Nika riots.
11) What unseen enemy struck at the heart of the empire in 543?
The bubonic plague. Aprx 200,000 died in Constantinople and East.
40% manpower wiped out.
"Pestilence swept through most of the Roman Empire wiping out most
of the farming communities and leaving a trail of desolation. At
Constantinople they dug pits all around the city and laid the dead there.
But later on, those who dug the pits were no longer able to keep up with
the numbers of dead mounted the towers of the fortifications and filled
practically almost all the towers with corpses. As a result of this an evil
stench pervaded the city, especially when the wind blew fresh from that
quarter." Procopius
12) What happened when Justinian sent out tax collectors to extract
taxes from the population?
Plague and wars to restore the empire had bled the empire dry.
Justinian was now in his sixties. He had ruled for twenty years. The
empire he believed he had so recently restored was cracking apart. He
was facing a further threat on the neglected border. Immense armies of
Slavs and Bulgars were pouring into the empire devastating towns and
villages. They reached the walls of Constantinople and were only
repelled at great cost."
Meanwhile, in Italy Justinian's armies rolled back and forth
inconclusively. Rome itself changed hands five times and suffered
irrevocable damage. As the years past Justinian continued shoring up
his frontiers building and shoring up fortresses from North Africa to
Syria, but the enemies also lay within. In Constantinople Justinian was
assailed by his long-standing aristocratic opponents. To them he
remained a peasant upstart who had made a whore his empress. To the
general population he was a tyrant draining them with taxation. A
further moral clampdown reinforced a mood of bitterness and
discontent.
"Justinian gave orders that all places of entertainment should be close
down. Both in private and in public there was grief and dejection. All
laughter had gone out of life." Procopius
13) What happened in 548? How did he react?
Theodora died of cancer. Grief stricken. Made him more inaccessible.
Disillusioned and saddened. As old man devoted his life to the church.
Died at 83 in 465.
"Justinian, I think, could be fairly be considered the last of the Romans
because on Justinian's death the hope of re-establishing the empire dies
with him. The hope of re-establishing a political state around the
Mediterranean basin, around what the Romans simply called 'mare
nostrum'--our sea, that hope fails. Dr. Chris Kelly
"Justinian was at the center of power in Constantinople for round about
half a century. That is a very long time. And during this half-century he
has to face a range of challenges that ultimately bring about the
transformation of the classical Roman Empire into the post-Roman
world--the Byzantine Empire in the East, the various successor
kingdoms in the West."
Only three years after Justinian's death the Lombards, another
Germanic people, poured into the exhausted Italian peninsula. It was
lost to Roman control forever.
"I think with the caesars we see an attempt to maintain a unified empire
around the Mediterranean both politically and culturally, and think with
the last of the caesars, Justinian, that ambition is forever lost. Islamic
invasions will make North Africa politically separate and culturally
foreign. With the last of the caesars we move from an idea of classical
unity to a medieval diversity. We move from a world in which Roman
emperors would have felt familiar to a world of new kings and new
conquerors, from a world dominated by caesars to a world dominated
by Mohammed and Charlemagne."
The Persians remained a menace on the frontiers until they succumbed
to a new force, the Arabs with their new religion--Islam. Within a
century they had also conquered North Africa. Yet a reduced eastern
empire was to survive for many centuries. It was not until 1453, 800
years after the death of Justinian, that Constantinople finally fell to the
Ottoman Turks.
"In my view the main legacies of the late Roman empire fall in the field
of religion and law. The late Roman Empire saw the creation of
Christianity as we know it essentially. Most of the doctrines, practices,
and structures of medieval and then modern Catholicism and Orthodox
Christianity are created during the late Roman period."
Justinian was the last to rule over a united Roman Empire. It was an
empire that survived a thousand years and its legacy resonates still. So
to does the legacy of its caesars. History has seen many imitators who
have styled them for good and ill, tsars, Kaisers, emperors. But for
boldness, determination, ruthlessness, brutality, and imagination few
have matched those called "caesar."