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Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

Vitruvian Architecture
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Key Elements of Roman Architecture
o Columns
o Arches
o Building Materials
INFRASTRUCTURE
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Roads
o
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o
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Roadworks
Via Appia
Via Flamina
Via Sacra
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Bridges
o Milvian Bridge, Rome
o Bridge over the Tagus river at Alacantra, Spain
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Aqueducts & Sewers
o Punic quanats
o Cloaca Maxima, Rome, Italy
o Hadrian’s Aqueduct, Carthage, Tunisia
o Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain
o Pont du Gard, Nimes, France
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PUBLIC BUILDINGS
Temples
o Greek Temple orders and styles
o The Tuscan temple
Rectangular Temples
o Temples of Rome & Augustus at Lepcis Magna, The Capitolium of Rome & Thuburbo
Majus, Tunisia
o Maison Caree, Nimes, France
o Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon
 Exterior
 Interior
Round Temples
o Temple of Venus at Baalbek, Lebanon,
o Temples of Vesta in Tivoli and Rome, Italy
o The Pantheon, Rome
 Exterior
 Interior
Basilicas
o Greek influences: the basiliké stoa
o Vitruvian utilitarian model: Basilica at Cosa, Etruria
o Pompeian Model: Pompeian basilica
o Basilica Nova Maxentius
Baths
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
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A day at the thermae
Stabian Baths, Pompeii
Hadrianic Baths, Lepcis Magna
Baths of Caracalla, Rome
Baths of Diocletian, Rome
Hunting Baths, Lepcis Magna
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Circuses
o What is a circus?
o Circus Maximus, Rome
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Theatres
o Greek influences
o The Roman theatre
o Theatre at Timgad
o Theatre at Lepcis Magna
o Theatre at Aspendos
o Theatre at Sabratha
o Theatre at Orange
o Reconstruction of the theatre of Marcellus, Rome
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Amphitheatres
o Gladiators
o Amphitheatre at Pompeii
o Amphitheatre at Nimes
o The Flavian Amphitheatre, Rome
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TOWN PLANNING
The Hippodamian Grid
ITALY
o Ostia: a typical roman town
o Pompeii: from Oscan wool-market to Vesuvius
o Aosta: a military fort
o Textbook town planning in northern Italy
GAUL
BRITAIN
NORTH AFRICA
NEAR EAST
FINE ART
WALL PAINTING
MOSAICS
FREE-STANDING SCULPTURE
RELIEF SCULPTURE
TRIUMPHAL MONUMENTS
TRIUMPHAL ARCHES
TRAJAN’S COLUMN
ARA PACIS DIVI AUGUSTAE
ROMAN HOUSES
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Vitruvian architecture
Picture not in Wheeler
Leaonardo da Vinci’s “Vitruvian
Man” showing the human body
in terms of Vitruvian geometric
proportionality.
Vitruvius was a Roman architect active in the late 1st century BC. He was heavily
influenced by Greek geometry and philosophy particularly Pythagorean aesthetics (the
philosophy of Beauty) and was especially interested in the ratio of proportionality known
as the Golden Mean and signified today by the Greek letter (phi).
Vitruvius believed buildings should mimic nature, which in turn mimics the ideal forms
of mathematics. Vitruvius studied Pythagorean philosophy and found that in all natural
things from inanimate rocks to the humming hives of bees geometry abounds. He wrote a
series of treatises entitled De Architectura in which he detailed how architecture should
resemble life and to this end he described the ideal proportions of a man. Leonardo da
Vinci famously sketched this Vitruvian Man and showed how he fitted perfectly into a
square and an equilateral triangle according to the dictates of the Golden Mean.
Vitrvius also outlined 3 principals that underpinned his branch of architecture.
1. firmitas – buildings must be built of strong and durable materials
2. utilitas – buildings must be functional and usable
3. venustas – buildings must be beautiful. This last one is complicated. Simply put, it
must look beautiful but beyond boasting exquisite decoration it must conform to
the mathematical laws of proportionality
If all these principals are adhered to then the resultant building will through its
proportional symmetry convey a sense of eurythmia: an intrinsic harmonous beauty.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Key Elements of Roman Architecture
Columns
Due to early contact with Greek colonists in southeast Italy and Sicily the Romans
absorbed Greek styles of columns into their architecture.
There are three orders of Greek columns:
1. The Doric Order
often plain in appearance, slightly fat and lacking a base
2. The Ionic Order
elegant, narrow, tall and crowned by the distinctive
capital decorated simply with ram-horn volutes
3. The Corinthian Order
like Ionic columns but crowned by a seeming floral
display that sometimes incorporate ram-horns but the
acanthus leaves that appear to grow organically define
Corinthian columns
Column shafts can be either fluted (with ridges and grooves) or unfluted (plain)
Illustration not in Wheeler
In addition to the order a building took from the columns it featured in its façade it also
had a style. The style of a building can be discovered simply by counting the number of
columns of the façade in Greek. Four columns = tetrastyle, six columns = hexastyle, eight
columns = octostyle, ten columns = decastyle …
For more on this see the section on Temples.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Arches
The arch was known to the Egyptians and the Greeks but never used to its potential until
Roman times. The Greeks favoured the post and pillar format of the temples for their
public buildings but this limited them in terms of the available space they could leave in a
building. They made fine use of triangular roofs however but again the structures suffered
from great stresses and strains, which limited the Greeks to using very strong, hard and
expensive marble. The arch could be constructed with anything from cheap brick to
polished marble and allowed the Romans to play with space.
Roman arches were constructed from unmortared (no cement) voussoirs (wedge shaped
blocks) which were held in position by a central keystone.
Thrust is the term given to the downward and outward force exerted by the combined
weight of these blocks and the great weight that they often supported.
In many buildings, supporting walls had to be reinforced by means of strong thick walls
known as buttresses that stopped the arch from collapsing due to the thrust of its load.
Illustration
not in
Wheeler
When several concentric arches are combined they formed a tunnel known as a barrelvault. When two barrel-vaults intersected at right angles they formed a cross-vault and
when an arch was constructed in three dimensions it formed a dome.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Building materials
Stone
Tufa
These illustrations are not in Wheeler
Travertine
Pentelic Marble
Porphyry
Alabaster
Tufa is an igneous (volcanic) rock like pumice, which ranges in its strength and hardness. It is distinctive
due its pock-marked appearance; caused by trapped air bubbles in the cooling lava.
Travertine is a sedimentary limestone (sometimes mistakenly identified as marble) that comes from a large
quarry in Tivoli near Rome. It is typically pock marked and porous and can be polished to a fine finish. The
Colosseum’s exterior is constructed almost entirely from travertine. Its actual name in Latin was lapis
tiburtinus - stone from Tibur (ancient Tivoli). It comes in a variety of colours ranging from light brown to
mottled red.
Pentelic marble is a fine white marble imported from the Athenian quarry in Greece. A similar Italian
marble was quarried at Luna.
Porphyry a highly prized redish purple granite was imported from Egypt at huge expense.
Alabaster (sometimes known as gypsum) is a soft whitish chalk quarried in Tuscany, north of Rome. It
was used for carving decorations. When heated in boiling water it acquires a translucent quality resembling
true marble. Albaster is properly a natural mineral compound rather than an actual rock.
Compounds
Stucco
Illustrations not in Wheeler
Stucco is a durable cement-like plaster made simply from lime, sand, marble dust and
water. It was used in varying consistencies (ratios of contents to water) as a dressing for
exteriors and interiors alike.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Concrete is a compound material made by mixing mortar (lime, sand and water) with an
aggregate: usually gravel or sometimes broken pottery. It was originally discovered by the
Egyptians but they failed to realise its potential. In the 1st century BC however the Romans
became masters in the uses of concrete. Concrete suffers from thrust and often cracks along
faults in walls. This is due to the fact that concrete is porous and so it swells and shrinks
depending upon its water content. The Romans however discovered that when mixed with
pozzolanic ash (a volcanic ash of varying colours found around Mt. Vesuvius near Naples) at
a ratio of 2:1 with lime before being added to the mixture of sand, aggregate and water the
resultant concrete was slow drying, water proof once dry and very hard wearing. Roman
water channels and sewers were coated in this type of concrete and sections of the original
aqueduct in Rome are still in use today. The Roman harbour at Cosa in Tuscany was built
with Roman concrete and also remains in use today. Concrete was often faced with slabs of
marble to make the walls look more appealing but the Romans were very fond of building
walls with concrete because it was so strong, moldable and cheap.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Roman Roads
All roads lead to Rome.
3 Famous Roads of Rome
Via Appia “the queen of the long roads (Statius)” and main road to the south.
 Length: 211km south from Rome to Capua – the original road.
 Built by Appius Claudius Caecus (censor) 312BC.
 It was the first long road built specifically for troops to march to and from Rome.
 It crossed the Pontine Marshes to the south which had up until that point formed a
geographic obstacle (and a high risk of malaria) to the Romans in their skirmishes
with the nearby Oscan tribes.
 71BC 6000 defeated slaves of Spartacus’ slave revolt were crucified along the Via
Appia between Rome and Capua.
 It was extended several times afterwards by a further 375km and finally by Trajan in
the 1st century AD to Barium (modern Bari) and Brundisium (Brindisi); ports on the
heel of Italy.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Via Flamina – most important road to the north.
 Built by Gaius Flaminus (censor) 220BC.
 Length: 311km
 It begins just inside the northern gate of Rome in the Aurellian walls at Porta
Flaminia (now Piazza del Popolo – the square of the poplars) and ends in the ancient
city of Ariminum (Rimini) on the Adriatic.
 Under Vespasian in AD69 the tunnel through the mountain at Furlo was enlarged. It
is still used today along the modern highway known as the SS 3 Flaminia.
Via Sacra
 The oldest and consequently most sacred street of Rome.
 It begins on the Capitoline Hill, passed through the Forum Romanum and ended at the
Colosseum.
 It passed some of the most sacred sites in Rome hence the name and formed part of
the Via Triumphalis – a route rather than a road used by victorious consuls during
Republican times and later by Emperors on their triumphal parades.
All road distances were calculated from the same starting point: the so-called golden
milestone that stood in the Roman Forum. It was said to be the heart of Rome. If all roads
led to Rome, they led to the golden milestone.
Bridges
A bridge is a continuation of a road where no road can be built. Roman bridges are a
testament to Roman stone masonry as much as they are to the use of the arch. Roman
bridges were constructed with unmortared masonry (no cement). Dry rectangular stone
blocks were put together in stretcher and header courses: one layer of blocks was laid
lengthwise, whilst the next was laid perpendicular. The blocks were then dovetailed
together (held by pressure caused by small wedge shaped blocks hammered between
them) or else held together by means of metal pins. And in true Virtruvian style bridges
often featured graded arches, the largest being at the centre and grading down in size
symmetrically to the sides.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
The Milvian Bridge in Rome
Wheeler, p.152, il.135
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Built by Consul Marcus Aemillius Scaurus in 109BC to replace the original
wooden bridge built by Consul Gaius Claudius Nero (not the famous Emperor Nero)
in 206BC.
Built primarily of unmortared tufa but faced with travertine
Bridge is slightly hump-backed but the hump is located between the 3rd and 4th
arches to meet the slightly higher bank on one side.
Two barrel-vaults flank the 4th arch forming flood-passages to relieve the bridge when the
Tiber is in flood.
Similarly the imposts (feet of the piers) are wedge shaped on the up-river side. These
act as breakwaters that direct the force of water through the arches and off of the
piers.
The viaduct on top is 8m wide and enclosed by two parapet walls on either side.
6 arches. The widest spanning almost 60ft/18.55m
The bridge carried the Via Flaminia across the Tiber. It would have been used as a
main thoroughfare for the movement of people and goods.
Incidentally
It was the scene of a famous battle (The Battle of the Milvian Bridge) during the civil
war between Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius in AD312; a battle in which
Constantine was victorious.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
The bridge across the Tagus valley at Alacantara in Spain
Wheeler, p.153, il.136
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Located at the city of Alacantara near the border between Spain and Portugal.
Built of unmortared granite
There is a dedication to Trajan on the triumphal arch at the centre
IMPeratori. CAESARI DIVI NERVA Filio. NERVAE
TRAIANO AVGVSTO GERMANICO DACICO PONTIFici. MAXimo. This is
the official title of Trajan as Emperor. The inclusion of Dacico means that the
inscription was carved after Trajan’s triumph on return from Dacia (AD102).
Bridge built by AD106
The piers are buttressed to withstand the thrust of the arches and held together
by means of metal clamps to withstand the pull of the river. The up-river sides are
rounded so as to act as breakwaters, which direct the flow of water through the arches
and stop the water from exerting full pressure on the piers themselves.
The widest arches at the centre measure 94ft/28.8m
The length of the bridge is almost 200m (194m).
The viaduct is 8m wide
At the highest point, the bridge is more than 50m above the river.
6 arches in total hold up the viaduct linking the two sides of the Tagus ravine.
There is a little Roman temple on the city side, bearing a dedication to the bridge
builder: Gaius Julius Lacer.
Incidentally
The bridge was damaged several times in the medieval period by the Moors, Spanish
and the Portuguese. Less than masterful repairs were made using cement, which
serves to prove the mastery of the Roman stone masons.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Waterworks: Aqueducts & Cloaca
Past influences and precedents
The Greeks
Polycrates of Samos (a Greek island) famously cut a water channel that stretched some
1,100ft long linking a water source with the city. It was in essence an aqueduct as it was
covered. It was however crudely constructed, being simply hewn through the rock.
Persians & Etruscans
The Persians had used qanats to irrigate the arid landscape of Iran long before Rome was
even founded. The Phoenicians acquired this technology and it quickly spread throughout
the various Punic colonies scattered throughout the Mediterranean, including Etruria
(Tuscany).The Romans therefore perfected an earlier Etruscan method of irrigation and
drainage.
A qanat – which is a Persian word – was a purpose built underground water channel that
sloped very gradually downward from higher ground, from an aquifer - a subterranean
water rich layer of permeable rock. This was tapped. Vertical shafts were then dropped at
regular intervals along the channel from which water could be drawn. The channel would
eventually come out into the open in the foothills where it would become a canal that
would irrigate the surrounding landscape.
Illustration not in Wheeler
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Aqueducts
illustration not in Wheeler
Aqueducts were purpose built Roman water channels in which the gentle flow of water
was carried by the force of gravity. The ducts themselves (like the one pictured above)
were lined with fine concrete mixed with pozzolanic ash. This formed a waterproof seal
that prevented leaking. The duct was then covered with stone slabs to protect the water
from animal and fecal contamination. The duct was then buried underground.
What we refer to as an aqueduct today is usually only a tiny portion of the original
aqueduct. Of all the aqueducts in Rome, only 10% are visible above ground. The
aqueduct bridges, which we mistakenly call aqueducts, were brought into use to carry
aqueducts across irregular terrain like valleys and ravines.
The aqueduct bridges that survive are as much a testament to Roman surveying as they
are to engineering and architecture. The line and levels of aqueducts had to be exact.
Aqueducts do not tolerate many twists and turns. The flow of water has to be gentle and
very slight, so the straighter and more gradual the gradient the less likely the water is to
erode the channel from the inside. For example, the Pont du Gard outside Nimes in
France drops only 34cm per kilometre and drops only 17m vertically in its entire length
of 51km (30 miles).
Vitruvius was the first to describe how water finds its own level and therefore aqueducts
work by the power of gravity. He went on to describe in great mathematical detail the
problems facing any aqueduct. The fragility of the watercourse was the main one. The
flow of water had to be gentle to prevent erosion of the channel and blow outs and despite
the precision of Roman engineering, aqueducts had to be constantly maintained so as to
guard the purity of the water, which they carried.
Incidentally
In AD95 Emperor Nerva appointed Frontinus, one of his generals, to the position of
curator aquarum charged with carrying out a full survey of all 11 aqueducts that served
Rome. At the end of the first century he published “De Aquaeducto”, which counts as the
first published survey of public works. Thanks in part to Vetruvius’ original calculations
he was able to detect discrepancies between the in-take and out-fall volumes and to
uncover illegal tapping of the aqueducts by individuals and local industries.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Single Tiered Aqueduct of Hadrian in Carthage
Wheeler, p.150, il.133
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Built AD131
Original length 90km/55 miles from Zaghoun mountains to Carthage, modern
Tunis.
Built primarily of local sandstone and reinforced with brick
Double Tiered Aqueduct of Segovia in Spain
Wheeler, p.151, il.134
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Wheeler says it was built c.AD10 but recent research suggests that it was probably
later: between the late 1st and early 2nd centuries AD during the reigns of Emperors
Vespasian or Nerva.
Built of unmortared granite blocks
36 arches on each tier
The upper arches are smaller but wider: 5.1m/16.1ft.
The lower arches are taller but narrower: 4.5m/14.8ft
Combined height including the water channel is 34m at the centre
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
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The total length of the aqueduct bridge is approximately 900m
Simple moulded imposts break the monotony of the piers: 2 on each pier of the
upper level and 4 on most piers of the lower level except towards the sides where it is
the lower piers that grade away gradually.
At the top the water channel is lined with concrete and which forms a U shaped
duct 0.55 by 0.46 meters (1.8 by 1.5 feet) and was once covered with granite slabs.
Incidentally
It was partially destroyed by the Moors in the Middle Ages but carefully restored to its
original glory by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in the 15th century.
Three Tiered “Pont Du Gard” in Nimes, France
Wheeler, p.150-51, il.132
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Built c.AD14
Total length of aqueduct was 50km/31miles from Fontaines d’Eure near the modern
town of Uzes to the Roman city of Nemausus (Nimes).
Total length of aqueduct bridge at highest level: 275m across the small Gardon
river
Combined height of all the tiers was 49m/180ft above the river
Lower tier: 6 arches, 142 m long, 6 m thick, 22 m high
Middle tier: 11 arches, 242 m long, 4 m thick, 20 m high
Upper tier: 35 arches, 275 m long, 3 m thick, 7 m high
Water channel: 1.8m/(6ft) high, 1.2m/(4ft) wide and has a gradient of 0.4%
The whole aqueduct delivered 6 million gallons of water daily to Nemausus
Breakwaters and wide span of 6 lowest tiers eliminate water erosion from river
Moulded imposts break the monotony: 2 on uppermost tier of piers & 3 on the
middle.
The aqueduct bridge doubles as a viaduct on the first level, though the modern road is
actually a newer bridge built in the 18th century to safeguard the Roman aqueduct.
Some of the granite blocks weigh as much as 6 tons bear the original Roman mason
marks indicating their exact place and number right or left.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Cloaca Maxima (Great Sewer) of Rome
Wheeler, p.148, il.131
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Built by the Etruscan kings prior to the foundation of the Republic by Tarquinius
Priscius c.600BC.
It was originally fed by three streams from the hills around the forum and was for
the most part an open drain, though certainly some of the lower parts must have
been tunneled below ground.
The technology is basically a reverse qanat. Instead of drawing water from the main
channel, waste was added through drains.
In 33BC Marcus Agrippa an accomplished general and then an elected aedile
(responsible for public works) as well as a close personal friend of Caesar Augustus
carried out extensive and badly needed maintenance of the sewers. He perfected the
Etruscan drains and turned them into a fully functional city sewage network.
The barrel vaulted tunnels were probably added at this time.
There were six other sewers in Rome that ran into the Cloaca Maxima just before it
reached the outfall into the Tiber (pictured above) near the ancient bridge nicknamed
the Ponte Rotto (broken bridge). Actually the outfall is to the left of the modern Ponte
Palatino as one crosses the Tiber from the Forum Boarium to Trastevere. The Ponte
Rotto is on the right.
By the 1st century AD the 11 aqueducts that supplied Rome with fresh water
ultimately ended in the Cloaca Maxima so the water pressure in the sewer was
kept constant. This flushed out blockages.
The sewer had its own goddess, Cloacina – an aspect of Venus. A shrine to Venus
Cloacina was erected in the Forum Romanum directly over a drain to the sewer. Janus
was also somehow connected to the sewer, as Constantine I erected an arch to Janus
Quadrifrons (4 headed Janus) again over a drain to the Cloaca in the Forum Boarium
(the cattle market). The specific meanings of these cults have been lost over time but
the Romans must have felt that these deities were as important as their sewers; else
they would not have built shrines to them.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Triumphal Arches
By way of introduction to Triumphal Arches Wheeler says, “From the exploitation of
the arch in a functional capacity it was but a step for a society so demonstrative and
wealthy as the Roman to elaborate it in monumental isolation.” (Wheeler, p.152).
Triumphal arches are curious for this reason. From their earliest appearance in Roman
civilisation they stood in monumental isolation showing no apparent regard to
functionality or utilitarian concepts. This fact sets triumphal arches up against one of the
founding 3 principals of the Virtruvian philosophy that seems to underpin Roman
architecture. These arches perform no function other than to act as “ … a facet of the
personality-cult which lies at the heart of the Imperial idea.” (Wheeler, p.153).
The very first arches however appeared during the time of the Republic in the 2nd century
BC. One of these early arches was placed on the spina in the Circus Maximus by one L.
Stertinus on his triumphant return from Spain. Elsewhere in the colonies of the Empire
they often replaced the gates of cities, which at least lent them some use but in several
places they traversed the road leading into a city leaving the modern historian guessing as
to their function other than perhaps to mark the limit of the pomerium – clear space
around a city. Writing in the 1st century AD the historian Pliny the Elder called the
triumphal arch a “new-fangled invention” which suggests that the craze was poorly
understood even by the most learned of men. It seems Wheeler may be right when he
says that, “… their ostentatious inutility has commended these costly ornaments,
these towering advertisements, to the Herrenvolk (common folk) mind.” (Wheeler,
p.153). Wheeler perhaps is right because these arches were indeed extremely popular. In
Rome alone there were more than 50 built throughout the city. It seems they were placed
as focal points in busy areas as “ … a decorative adjunct to some particularly
frequented spot: celeberrimo loco …” (Wheeler, p.156) as an inscription from the Arch
of Augustus in Pisa put it. In some cases access to them was hindered by steps, blocked
and even prohibited by law. They were not bridges as they stood in isolation. They were
not tombs. They supported nothing but an upper storey that carried nothing except
artwork and dedications. They were in essence bill-boards glorifying whosoever built
them.
There were several different kinds of triumphal arch: Single and Triple arched arches and
three-way and four-way arches.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
The Single Arch of Titus in Rome
Single Arches like the Arch of Titus in Rome appear in greater concentration in the
western half of the empire, i.e. Europe.
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Built c.AD81
Located on the Via Sacra, south-east of the Forum Romanum
Built by Emperor Domitian and dedicated in memory of his older brother Emperor Titus and the sack
of Jerusalem in AD70.
Pentalic Marble imported from Greece
The corners are articulated with engaged fluted Corinthian columns, though the capitals also sport
ionic volutes. They count as the earliest example of the composite order.
The entablature juts out over the column capitals
The soffit (archway ceiling) is coffered and bears the image of the apotheosis (deified image) of Titus
at the centre
The barrel vault is decorated by panel reliefs. One depicting the Romans seizing the Temple spoils in
Jerusalem including a sacred Jewish menorah. The other shows Titus attended by a procession of
lictors (traditional attendants/bodyguards) indicating his importance.
The attic storey was originally surmounted by a bronze quadriga (a chariot drawn by four horses)
probably driven by a statue of Titus.
A dedication to Titus is inscribed on a plaque over the arch on the attic section. It reads:
SENATVS
POPVLVSQVE·ROMANVS
DIVO·TITO·DIVI·VESPASIANI·F. (Filio)
VESPASIANO·AVGVSTO
Which means The Senate and People of Rome (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus
Augustus, son of the divine Vespasian.
It is not known whether the opposite side ever held an inscription but Pope Pius XVII placed one
there in his own honour after he refurbished the arch in 1821. The new inscription was
intentionally made on travertine marble to differentiate it from the original pentallic marble.
This single triumphal arch provided Napoleon’s architects with the inspiration for his Arc du Triomphe
in Paris
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
Trajan’s Triple Arch in Timgad
Wheeler, p.154, il.137
Later on and elsewhere in the empire the triple arch became more popular, probably
because it guaranteed more space for decoration. An impoverished example is the Triple
Arch of Trajan at Timgad, Algeria. It was built in the 2nd century AD and replaced the
west gate of the colony, so it was slightly more functional than other arches.
Unfortunately its state of preservation is poor. It seems to have been a modestly decorated
arch.
 Built of local sandstone
 The axial archway is flanked by two piers, each with a smaller arch within.
 The piers are flanked by twin freestanding fluted Corinthian columns which appear to
support broken round headed pediments in the attic storey.
 Rectangular niches appear over the smaller arches and below the broken pediments.
Only one is still flanked by smaller ornamental Corinthian columns.
 The niches and small arches on the piers are separated by moulded imposts which
carry across the breadth of each pier directly below the axial arch breaking the
monotony.
 The entablature of the attic storey is simple.
Although the earliest form of the trimphal arch to appear in Rome was the single form
(like that of Titus), by the early days of Principate (early empire) the triple form had also
emerged. The larger edifice granted a longer attic storey and therefore more space for
decoration and dedications.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
The Triple Arch of Constantine I in Rome
Wheeler, p.158, il.140
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Built AD315
Commemorates Constantine’s victory against Mexentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge,
AD312.
Located between the Colloseum and the Palatine Hill. It intentionally spans the Via
Triumphalis – the route taken by all emperors on a triumphal parade.
It is worth mentioning that the architect included spolia – robbed and re-worked material
from earlier monuments in its decorations.
The main arch is built of travertine marble and the attic storey is built primarily of brick
revetted with travertine marble, to reduce the weight the barrel vault supported.
The re-use of earlier art work or spolia may be explained in 2 ways: propaganda or speed of
construction, and probably a mix of both.
Propaganda: the earlier artwork was taken from pre-existing monuments built by the good
emperors of Rome: Trajan, Hadrain and Marcus Aurelius with whom Constantine wished to
stand in the minds of his people.
Speed of construction: the arch was commissioned and built hastily to commemorate
Constantine’s victory over Emperor Maxentius during a civil war that broke the imperial
tetrarchy – when Rome was ruled by four. He had to celebrate a triumph quickly. The arch
took 3 years to build after the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. The spolia may therefore have
been used for the purpose of expediency as new ark works would take too long.
On the attic storey, flanking the inscriptions are pairs of relief sculpture taken from some
earlier monument built by Marcus Aurelius comemorating his victories over the barbarians.
The reliefs tell a sequential storey by episodes. They show the Emperor leaving the city,
distributing money to the people, at war, interrogating a prisoner, accepting surrender by the
defeated cheiftain, a triumphal parade with hosts of prisoners, the emperor addressing his
troops and piously offering sacrifice to the gods. The emperor depicted is clearly Aurelius
and has not been reworked to present Constantine. But Aurelius’ son Commodus has been
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
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eradicated following his damnatio memoriae – he was a wicked tyrant who was eventually
assassinated and his memory was struck off the official historical record. This was an ancient
practice that was first used by the Egyptians for Pharaohs they wished to forget like
Akhenaten or Queen Hatsheput.
The smaller sides of the attic as well the inner passages of the barrel vault feature friezes
taken from Trajan’s Forum celebrating his victories in Dacia.
The main façades on either side is divided into three by 4 fluted disengaged Corinthian
columns made of yellow marble imported from Numidia (ancient Algeria).
The spandrels of the main arches feature Victory goddesses presenting laurel wreaths. The
spandrels of the minor arches feature river gods. These are original works.
Pairs of round reliefs appear above each of the minor archways depciting scenes of hunting
and sacrificing. They were originally Hadrianic but the faces of the emporer have been
reworked to resemble Constantine.
Two medallions appear on the smaller sides of the sun in his chariot rising on the eastern side
and the moon in her chariot descending on the western side. This is a common pattern, the
greatest example of which appears on Phidias’ eastern pediment of the Parthenon in Athens.
The main pieces of original artwork commisioned by Constantine is a fireze that runs around
the monument between the minor arches and the medallions. These depict sequential episodes
of the civil war: The depatrure from Milan, the sige of Verona, the Battle of the Milvian
Bridge and the Emperor entering Rome. There is no depiction of the triumph however,
perhaps because Constantine did not want to appear triumphant over Rome itself. Minor
inscription proclaim him also as Rome’s liberator.
The main inscription reads:
IMP · CAES · FL · CONSTANTINO · MAXIMO · P · F · AVGUSTO · S · P · Q · R ·
QVOD · INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS · MENTIS · MAGNITVDINE · CVM ·
EXERCITV · SVO · TAM · DE · TYRANNO · QVAM · DE · OMNI · EIVS ·
FACTIONE · VNO · TEMPORE · IVSTIS · REM-PVBLICAM · VLTVS · EST ·
ARMIS · ARCVM · TRIVMPHIS · INSIGNEM · DICAVIT
To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the greatest, pious, and blessed Augustus:
because he, inspired by the divine, and by the greatness of his mind, has delivered the state
from the tyrant and all of his followers at the same time, with his army and just force of
arms, the Senate and People of Rome have dedicated this arch, decorated with triumphs.
Instinctu divinitatis may allude to Constantine’s shifting religious beliefs. Constantine was
the first Christian emperor. He didn’t make the traditional sacrifices to the Roman gods after
his triumph in 315. After the celebrations he simply returned to his palace.
This triple triumphal arch was the inspiration for the design of Napoleon’s “little” Arc du
Triomphe at Place du Carrousel in Paris. The famous Arc du Triomphe at the other end of the
Champs d’Elysee was inspired by the arch of Titus.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
If one were to seek a single emblem for the combined majesty and ostentation of a successful
Rome, those monstrous toys the triumphal arches were difficult to deny (Wheeler, p.158).
A reconstruction of one of “those monstrous toys”
The Four-Way Arch of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna
Wheeler,
p.155,
il.138
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Of uncertain date but Wheeler is correct to estimate a middle date of c.AD200
because relief carvings depict Parthians as the defeated enemy who Septimius
Severus fought early in his reign and Caracalla, his son and heir features a tall
adolescent boy in the reliefs. By AD200 Caracalla would have been a teenager.
The Arch was built and financed by the citizens celebrating the city’s most famous
son: The Emperor who brought the stability to Rome in the year of the 5 Emperors:
AD193. Septimius Severus was born in Lepcis Magna.
It was located just outside the city at the north-east end of the cardo on an island
mounted by steps. Traffic was circumvented around it.
It is built of unmortared local limestone.
The present day arch that stands is largely a reconstruction. Only the foundations and
partial ruins of the piers were uncovered by excavation in the 1920’s.
There is a remarkable disparity between the craftsmanship of the friezes. Some are
clearly the work of master sculptors whilst others are common carvings. The
limestone blocks of the central pier were also measured in Punic cubits, whereas
those of the outside arches were in Roman feet, which again suggests there was a
pause during construction. It is reasonable to assume that the city commissioned the
work as soon Spetimius Severus took power in 193 but that the progress was slow and
then finally the arch was finished quickly, perhaps in time for the Emperor’s visit
AD202-03.
Architecturally the quadrifrons form of the arch is a cross vault, i.e. 2 intersecting
barrel vaults.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress
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This type of arch is rare but not unique but they do seem to be limited to Africa.
There is another 4 way arch nearby at Oea (modern Tripoli) dedicated to Marcus
Aurelius and Lucius Verus.
Each of the four ornately decorated arches jut out from a more simple main cross
vaulted block of piers that must have been built earlier.
The arches are crowned by broken pediments supported by un-engaged fluted
Corinthian columns, whilst the arches themselves appear to be supported by
beautifully ornate Corinthian pilasters.
The style of decoration is a fusion of orthodox imperial Roman monumentalism, with
a Greek bohemian edge and there is also unsurprisingly a Punic quality – Lepcis
Magna was a Punic colony.
The two protective deities of the city who were originally Punic appear in the reliefs.
Milkashtart – the male consort of Astarte who was likened to Hercules by the Romans
and Shadrapa – a Phoenician healing god linked to Dionysus. Therefore the arch is a
testament to the extraordinary flexibility of Roman religion with regard to its respect
and tolerance for the foreign cultures.
Nikes (Greek Victory daemons) also appear on the spandrels (the panels to either side
of each arch).
A tendril and rosette frieze runs around the monument. Organic motifs also pervade
throughout the monument’s decorations. Vines and grapes particularly lend the arch a
Dionysian flavour as does the eastern quality to the entire work.
Each side of the attic storey is decorated by relief carvings of the Emperor’s victories
against the Parthians.
The Three-Way Arch at Palmyra
Wheeler, p.63, il.43
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Probably dates to second century AD
Inscriptions point to Septimius Severus or his son Caracalla (AD193-217)
It is actually two triple arches juxtaposed at an angle to create a wedge-shaped
junction in the decumanus masking a change in direction in the street towards the
Temple of Bel.
Roman Art & Architecture: A work in progress