History of Focus Groups
According to Edmunds, focus group interviews
“... are either guided or unguided discussions
addressing a particular topic of interest or
relevance to the group and the researcher.”
History of Focus Groups
 The use of focus groups existed before World
War II.
History of Focus Groups
 Sociologist Robert Merton, was introduced to
the focus group in the years following World
War II. He wrote a book titled, The Focused
Interview in 1956.
 In the 1950's, focus groups became commonplace among marketers.
 It was not until the 1980s that focus groups
were rediscovered by social scientists.
Sociologists called this technique “group
interviews,” but were essentially focus
groups.
History of Focus Groups
 Focus groups became known in popular culture in the
1990s. President Clinton research teams extensively
used focus groups.
 Characteristics of the first focus groups included: 1)
Six to 10 participants. 2) Focused on the effects of
film and television programming, advertising and
product consumption, and probed public
understanding of health issues. 3) Researchers
sought to understand the motivation of the
participants.
Research and Focus Groups
 Focus groups are considered a qualitative
method.
 Qualitative methodology had been embedded
within cultural anthropology and in the early
years of sociology.
 In sociology, emerged as a powerful critique
of quantitative methodology in the 1950s.
Research and Focus Groups
 Qualitative research strategies is
acknowledged to render insight into how
people attribute meaning and interpret their
life world.
 Basch (1987) claims that focus groups may
be defined as “a qualitative approach to
learning about population subgroups with
respect to conscious, semiconscious, and
unconscious psychological and sociocultural
characteristics and processes.”
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Focus Groups
 Focus groups can produce a wider range of
information than other research strategies.
 Focus groups can generate new ideas or
connections from what might be viewed as
random comments.
 Able to glean how people attribute meaning
to the subject matter.
 Excellent preliminary tool or as an adjunct to
other methods.
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Focus Groups
 Consistent with other qualitative methods, it is
difficult to generalize results to larger
populations.
 The skill of the facilitator is crucial to the
dynamics of the group, and ultimately to the
utility of the data.
 The use of such data must be clearly
understood. The use of the data often outpaces the limits of focus group data.
Types and structure of Focus
Groups
 In recent times, the use of focus groups has
expanded from its original conception.
 Most researchers want to “know something”
from the participants. These are simply
referred to as instrumental focus groups.
These groups can probe:
1.
2.
3.
attitudes or opinions
behavioral patterns
cognition or knowledge inquiry.
Types and structure of Focus
Groups
 Another type of focus group, less common
among academicians, is the expressive focus
group. People in the “helping professions”
often rely on this type of group, in which the
primary goal is the welfare of the participant.
 Structures vary from very formal (Networks’
focus groups during a campaign season, for
example) to informal. These are typically
referred to as structured, semi-structured,
and unstructured focus groups respectively.
Designing a Focus Group


Clearly define the research problem or
topic. In other words, do you want to
understand participant behavior, attitudes,
or knowledge of a subject.
Is it being used as a stand-alone method, or
in conjunction with other research
strategies? If it is the former, typically it
functions as a pilot project or exploratory
research.
Designing a Focus Group




Creating the group can be the most difficult
task. We cannot generalize to the target
population, but you want the composition to
resemble the varying interest in your target
population.
Size of group- Researchers disagree on this
issue.
Many claim 7 to 9 members
Others suggest 12 to 15 members.
Basic Tips for a Successful Focus
Group
 It is important for facilitators to nurture an
atmosphere which encourages subjects to
speak freely.
 When conducted correctly, interactions
between members stimulate discussion.
 Some have called this the “synergistic group
effect.” This is a state in which one member
draws from another, or a condition in which
the collectively performs better than its
constituent parts.
Basic Tips for a Successful Focus
Group
 Introduction and introductory activities

It is important that facilitators explain the
purpose and how a focus group operates.
It is also appropriate to develop an
introductory activity such as having the
members say something about themselves
(e.g., their favorite hobby, occupation, etc.).
Basic Tips for a Successful Focus
Group
 Statement of the basic rules- you should
explain that you expect an open, polite, and
orderly environment where everyone in the
group is encouraged to participate.
Basic Tips for a Successful Focus
Group
 Short question-and-answer discussion-
you may choose to ask a question with an
open forum, or you can ask each member the
same question and then allow for group
discussion.
 Special activities or exercises- while many
focus groups restrict their data collection to
responses from questions, some (especially
those with children) may include role-playing
or other innovative types of activities.
Basic Tips for a Successful Focus
Group
 Dealing with sensitive issues- facilitators
should be aware of sensitive issues such as
drug use, deviant behaviors, and certain
mental health issues.
 The rule here is to approach the subject in
broad terms to provide opportunity for more
specific issues and responses.
Basic Tips for a Successful Focus
Group
 Documenting the session- there are a
number of issues at stake.
 First, you may inform the group that the
session will be recorded.
 The recording device should be operational.
 Second, the placement of the recorder is a
problem. If it is centrally located we found it
very difficult to transcribe the tapes, mainly
because the sociology of conversation is
ostensibly overlapping.
Facilitator
 Kitzinger (1995) suggests that the amount of
explanation, listening, and addressing issues
is the facilitators utmost concern.
Facilitator
 Initially, the facilitator may choose to take a back seat
and assume a “structured eavesdropping” posture.
 Later, the researcher may take a more interventionist
position, encouraging groups to discuss the
inconsistencies within the group or within their own
thinking.
 The facilitator should not shy away from
disagreement within the group.
 Facilitators can utilize the interaction to explore topics
in more detail and draw out the feelings of each
participant based on their reactions to what others in
the room have said.
Facilitator
 A competent facilitator will utilize non-verbal
cues, which may be more important than oral
cues in determining reactions to different
ideas.
 Sometimes it is beneficial to present each
participant with a brief questionnaire that
allows them to respond in private after the
group session is completed.
Analyzing the Data
 The “thematic” approach is the most widely
used.
 You sift and sort through the responses for
each question and find similarities and
cleavages. You are looking for emerging
themes or narratives.
 Once you have identified the themes, you
can quantify and address the question of
“how many.” “Who” is advocating what theme.
The question of “why”. It may be affective or
ideological or practical.
Potential Personality
Obstructions
 There are many obstacles in the form of
personalities or individual dispositions to a
successful focus group. These are listed in
no particular sequence or manifested
frequency
Potential Obstructions
 The facili-tator
Potential Obstructions
 The dic-tator
Potential Obstructions
 The agi-tator
Potential Obstructions
 The commen-tator
Potential Obstructions
 The spec-tator
Potential Obstructions
 The hesi-tator
Potential Obstructions
 The imi-tator