GENDER & SEXUALITY
•Difference between Sex & Gender
•Terms in Gender & Sexuality
•Gender Inequality:
•Historical
•Religious
•Biological
•Sociological
•Theories in Gender Stratification
1
•Gender & the Workplace
DEFINITION OF SEX
 Sex refers to the physical and biological differences
between men and women – physical distinctions in
anatomical,
chromosomal,
hormonal
and
physiological characteristics.
2
DEFINITION OF SEX
 At birth, the differences are most evident in the external
male and female genitalia.
 Other distinctions are internal genitalia (reproductive
system), hormones and cells gonads (the organs which
produce sex cells).
3
DEFINITION OF SEX
 In terms of chromosomes, a man’s chromosomes are
mainly XY and a female’s is XX.
4
DEFINITION OF GENDER
5
DEFINITION OF GENDER
 Gender refers to the social, psychological and
cultural attributes of masculinity and femininity
that are based on the biological distinctions.
6
DEFINITION OF GENDER
 Gender pertains to the socially learned patterns of
behaviour and the psychological or emotional
expressions of attitudes that distinguish males from
females.
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SEX & GENDER CATEGORIES
 Officially, SEX is referred to as:
MALE / FEMALE
MAN /WOMAN
BOY / GIRL
 Whereas GENDER is:
MASCULINE / FEMININE
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DEFINITION OF SEX & GENDER
 Sex is thought of as an ascribed status – a person is
either born a male or a female (although transsexuals,
transvestites and androgynous individuals make us
realize that the concept of man or woman can be blurry
or fuzzy.)
 Gender is learned through the socialization process and
thus is an achieved status. What is considered
masculine or feminine may vary and is relative
depending on the culture.
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DEFINITION OF SEX & GENDER
 Gender Identity Disorder – a third sex/gender
exists – neither man nor woman (called a
hermaphrodite or an androgene).
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TERMS IN GENDER & SEXUALITY
 Matriarchal Society – a society where women are dominant and take
the leading role in society and hold power and authority; men are
subordinate
 Patriarchal Society – a society where men are dominant and central
to the social organization and hold authority over women, children,
property
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TERMS IN GENDER & SEXUALITY
 Heterosexual – someone who is attracted to members of the
opposite sex
 Metrosexual – a heterosexual man (living in an urban, postindustrial, capitalist setting) who spends a lot of time and money on
his physical appearance
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TERMS IN GENDER & SEXUALITY
 Transgender – an umbrella term that describes ANYONE
who is gender variant.
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TERMS IN GENDER & SEXUALITY
 The following fall in the transgender category:
 Homosexual – Gay and Lesbian – someone who is
attracted to members of the same sex
 Bisexual – someone attracted to both sexes
 Hermaphrodite – An individual with both reproductive
organs (biological)
 Androgynous – born with one set of reproductive organs
but cannot tell based on appearance (social)
 Asexual – little or no sexual attraction to anyone
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TERMS IN GENDER & SEXUALITY
 Transsexual – someone who was born one sex and
changes that sex through cosmetic surgery
 Transvestite/cross-dresser – a heterosexual who
dresses up as the other gender (e.g. man dresses as
woman, woman dresses as man)
 Drag Queen – is a homosexual man (gay) who
dresses up as a woman
 Drag King – is a homosexual woman (lesbian) who
dresses up as a man
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PREGNANT MAN?
Thomas Beatie in 2008 – born a woman (Tracy Lagondino), but legally
changed to a “male” and kept reproductive organs.
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Man or Woman?
17
A
B
Man or Woman?
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C
D
Man or Woman?
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E
F
Man or Woman?
20
G
H
Man or Woman?
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I
J
Man or Woman?
22
K
L
Man or Woman?
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M
N
Man or Woman?
24
O
P
WHERE DO GENDER STEREOTYPES COME
FROM?
HISTORICAL
RELIGIOUS
BIOLOGICAL
SOCIOLOGICAL
25
Historical Views
 Throughout the ages, women’s role in society may be
summed up as follows:
 Women produce children
 Women are mothers and wives
 Women do the cooking, washing, cleaning & sewing
 Women take care of men and are subordinate to male
authority
 Women are largely excluded from high status occupations
from positions of power
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Historical Views
 Greeks – A woman “should consider that her husband’s
wishes are as laws appointed for her by divine will”
(Aristotle)
 A third century Chinese Scholar claimed that “bitter
indeed it is to be born a woman, it is difficult to
imagine anything so low!”
 Even Confucius posited that Chinese women were
obedient to their father when unmarried, their
husbands when married and to their sons when
widowed.
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Historical Views
 Confucian Doctrine – 4Virtues of a Woman:
 women’s ethics (a woman must know her place)
 women’s speech (a woman must not talk too much and not bore
people)
 women’s appearance (a woman must dress in a manner in
which is appealing to men)
 women’s chores (a woman must willingly do chores)
 In fundamental, traditional Arabic law, three groups of people are
not eligible for legal and religious equality – unbelievers, slaves and
women.
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Historical Views
 Americans – Thomas Jefferson – a woman’s single purpose in life
was marriage and subornation to her husband.
 19th Century – Europe & America Sociologists
 Feminists have argued that prior to the 1970s, nearly all sociology
was written by men, about men and for men.
 Although there were female sociologists (Harriet Martineau), they
were few and far apart and nearly all sociological research used
male samples and aspects of society that may have been of interest
to women such as a woman’s position in society, household chores
and female crime were rarely studied.
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Historical Views
 Auguste Comte - “in all kinds of force, whether
physical, intellectual or practical, it is certain that man
surpasses women in accordance with the general law
prevailing throughout the animal kingdom.”
 Comte felt that a woman’s place should not be in
work, the political arena or even to own property,
rather, their gentle nature meant that they should
remain at home and tend to their children and
husband’s needs.
30
Religious Views
 Judeo-Christianity – the origins of Man and Woman
 Adam & Eve – the Garden of Eden
 According to Genesis, God even asserts that women
should bear the brunt of these sorrows, mainly through
childbirth and “thy desire shall be to thy husband and he
shall rule over thee” (Genesis 3:16)
 War, pestilence, famine, death and every imaginable sin
were the prices humanity had to pay for Eve’s
disobedience.
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Religious Views
 God-ordained gender-role hierarchy – theological
justification of a patriarchal ideology.
 Hindu society – women must wear head veils,
property is given to first-born son, dowry
 Islamic tradition – women wear veils over heads and
sometimes faces, location during prayers in the
mosque.
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Biological Views
 Sociobiological – human social behaviour is genetic. Use
ethology (the study of animal behaviour) to explain
differences between sexes.
 Critics argue it is a racist or discriminatory view.
 Physiological – differences between health and physical
capacities that affect gender roles. For example, size and
muscle development, longevity/life span and
susceptibility to disease and physical disorder
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Biological Views
 Some diseases that vary depending on the sex of the
individual include:
 Heart Attack – the leading cause of death for women.
Although men have a greater prevalence of heart disease,
more women than men die of heart attacks each year.
 Cancer – the second leading cause of death for women
(lung cancer leading the list, followed by breast cancer)
Women are 20% to 70% more likely to develop lung
cancer than male smokers.
34
Biological Views
 HIV/AIDS – Women are 10 times more likely than
men to contract HIV during unprotected sex with an
infected partner.
 Diabetes – more women suffer from diabetes than
men.
 Osteoporosis – 80% of people with osteoporosis are
women.
 Immunological Diseases – Thyroid disease – 15:1
ratio of women to men.
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Biological Views
 Depression – Women are twice as likely to be
depressed as men.
 Visual & Hearing Impairments – Men have
nearly 50% greater likelihood of experiencing these
problems.
Source: From National Institutes of Health, “Women’s
Health,” 2001.Available at: www.hrsa.gov.
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GENDER & SEX
 In a study done on college campuses in America in
1989, “attractive” men and women were hired to
approach strangers and to say to them, “I’ve been
noticing you around campus and I find you very
attractive.” They were then told to ask one of three
questions:
 Would you go out with me tonight?
 Would you come over to my apartment tonight?
 Would you go to bed with me tonight?
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Question
Female
Male Answer (%)
Answer (%)
Would you go out
with me tonight?
Yes (50%)
Yes (50%)
Would you come
over to my
apartment tonight?
Yes (6%)
Yes (69%)
Would you have sex Yes (0%)
with me tonight?
No (100%)
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Yes (75%)
No (25%) – Reasons:
• I had a prior engagement
• I have to meet my girlfriend
Sociological Views
 Most sociologists tend to agree that even in preliterate
societies, culture, not biology, is central to the patterning
of gender roles. Their main focus is the sexual division of
labour and gender inequalities.
 Ann Oakley (1944 –) believes that gender roles are
culturally rather than biologically produced. In other
words, humans learn behaviour that is expected of males
and females within society.
 For example, the behaviour of a metrosexual man might
be seen as feminine.
39
Sociological Views
 Famous
anthropologist, George Peter Murdock
(1897-1985) argued that the biological difference
between men and women result in the sexual division
of labour. He posits that the fact that women could
give birth and nurse, and that they lacked the strength
of most men, means that the types of jobs they carry
out would be less demanding than the jobs of men.
40
Sociological Views
 For Talcott Parsons (Structural Functionalist), women had
a necessary role at the home. He argued that because the
woman bore and nursed children, they would have a
closer bond and therefore it is only fair that they stay at
home and take care of the family, while the man is the
breadwinner for the home.
41
Sociological Views
 As such, the family works smoothly and efficiently as a
social system and all groups can function side by side and
harmoniously. A woman’s place therefore is in the home.
42
GENDER INEQUALITY
 China’s One-Child Policy – because of spiralling
population
 Skewed sex ratio in the population –120 males
to 100 females (smaller female population)
 Problem exists in Singapore, South Korea,
Taiwan, India & more Fundamental Islamic
cultures
43
GENDER INEQUALITY
44
GENDER INEQUALITY
 NASA Spacecraft
 It depicts that:
Man is the dominant
species on Earth.
45
THEORIES ON GENDER INEQUALITY
 Functionalism
 Conflict Theory (Marxism)
 Feminist Perspectives:
 Radical Feminism
 Marxist and socialist feminism
 Liberal Feminism
 Black Feminism
 Postmodern Feminism
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Functionalism
 Women’s role is to take care of the family, socialization &
household chores.
 Men were responsible for the economic sphere of the
family.
 Parsons and Robert Bales (1955) applied this theory to
the modern family and asserted that division of labour
and role differentiation by sex are universal principles of
family organization and are functional to the modern and
ideal nuclear family.
47
Marxism (Conflict Theory)
 Although Functionalist theory may have attempted to explain why
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gender roles emerged, they do not explain why they’ve persisted.
Marxists blame the economic system – mainly capitalism
Economic advantage leads to power and prestige and if men are
superior in the economic system, they will undoubtedly be
superior in the family.
Men own private property and therefore hold power & authority
Solution – Capitalist  Socialist  Communist society (where all
is equal and classless, including genderless – everyone’s job is
deemed as important and necessary)
Feminism
 According to Ann Oakley, Feminism emerged in the
1970s.
 The focus of feminism has been the subordination of
women and the explanation for or cause of this
subordination; they also recommend solutions.
 Although Feminist theorists have been responsible for
developing theories of gender inequality, there are
variations within the Feminist perspective.
49
 TYPES OF FEMINISM:
 Radical
 Marxist
 Liberal
 Black
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Radical Feminism
 Radical Feminists blame men for the woes and subordination
of women. They see societies as patriarchal (dominated and
ruled by men).
 The family is the main institution of oppressing women.
These women argue that rape and male violence are
methods used to secure male dominance over women.
 Some argue that women are not equal, but superior to
men, and seek a matriarchal society.
 They reject any assistance of men and argue that men are
responsible for all the problems in the world: war, poverty,
terrorism, conflict.
51
Marxist Feminism
 They blame capitalism for women oppression. They
argue that women are also exploited in terms of
salary/paid employment. They blame the economic
system.
 They see greater scope for co-operation between
women and working-class men as this group of
men also suffers in a capitalist society.
 Solution is communist society.
52
Liberal Feminism
 The aims are more moderate and its views pose less of a
challenge to existing values. For them, both men and
women suffer because of gender inequalities.
 Women are denied potential success in the workplace and
men are denied interaction and close relationship with
their offspring. They blame culture and attitudes of
individuals rather than structures and institutions.
 Willing to work with anyone who is ready to eliminate
discrimination and gender inequalities.
53
Black Feminism
 Black Feminism developed out of dissatisfaction of
other feminists perspectives.
 They argue that black women suffer the most because
it is a double blow – being a woman and being black.
 For them, while white women began to have access to
some rights, such as working in businesses and
government, black women were still greatly
discriminated against.
54
Gender-Role Socialization
 Gender-role socialization refers to the set of
attitudes and behaviors socially expected
from the members of a particular gender
identity. Gender roles are socially
constructed which are often politicized and
manipulated, which then result in the
oppression of people.
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Gender Inequality & Work
 Job discrimination:
Occupation
%
Male
Occupation
Automobile Mechanic
98.9 Secretary
98.9
Carpenter
98.3 Receptionist
96.7
Airplane Pilot
96.3 Speech Therapist
93.5
Firefighter
96.2 Bank Teller
90.0
Truck Driver
95.3 Librarian
85.2
Mechanical Engineer
93.7 Elementary School Teacher
83.3
Computer programmer
73.5 Nurse
82.6
 Source: Bureau of Census 2002. USA
56
%
Female
QUESTION…
 If you were taking a new job and had your
choice of a boss, would you prefer to work
for a man or a woman?
A.Man
B.Woman
C.No preference
Some Facts about Women Around the World
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Women perform 66% of the world’s work, but receive only 11% of
the world’s income, and own only 1% of the world’s land.
Women make up 66% of the world’s illiterate adults.
Women head 83% of single-parent families. The number of families
nurtured by women alone doubled from 1970 to 1995 (from 5.6
million to 12.2 million).
Women account for 55% of all college students, but even when
women have equal years of education it does not translate into
economic opportunities or political power.
There are six million more women than men in the world.
Some Facts about Women Around the World
6.
7.
8.
9.
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Two-thirds of the world’s children who receive less than four years of
education are girls. Girls represent nearly 60% of the children not in school.
Parents in countries such as China and India sometimes use sex
determination tests to find out if their fetus is a girl. Of 8,000 fetuses
aborted at a Bombay clinic, 7,999 were female.
Wars today affect civilians most, since they are civil wars, guerrilla actions
and ethnic disputes over territory or government. 3 out of 4 fatalities of war
are women and children.
Rape is consciously used as a tool of genocide and weapon of war. Tens of
thousands of women and girls have been subjected to rape and other sexual
violence since the crisis erupted in Darfur in 2003. There is no evidence of
anyone being convicted in Darfur for these atrocities.
Some Facts about Women Around the World
10. About 75% of the refugees and internally displaced in the
world are women who have lost their families and their
homes.
11. Gender-based violence kills one in three women across the
world and is the biggest cause of injury and death to women
worldwide, causing more deaths and disability among
women aged 15 to 44 than cancer, malaria, traffic accident,
and war.
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Source: http://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-poignant-factsabout-women-around-world