Session C9 Mechanical Engineering Topics 9
6267
Disclaimer—This paper partially fulfills a writing
requirement for first year (freshman) engineering students at
the University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering.
This paper is a student, not a professional, paper. This paper
is based on publicly available information and may not provide
complete analyses of all relevant data. If this paper is used for
any purpose other than these authors’ partial fulfillment of a
writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering
students at the University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of
Engineering, the user does so at his or her own risk.
Climate change is a reality we have ignored for years.
Consequently, we are facing global shifts in weather patterns
and worldwide temperature changes. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change agrees that “the massive increases of
CO₂ and other greenhouse gases (GHG) will increase overall
average global temperatures and cause climate change.” And
although CO₂ is less damaging than other greenhouse gases,
“it is thought to contribute between 60% and 70% to global
climate change, because of its sheer volume” in our
atmosphere [1]. Even more staggering, is that the United States
is the second largest contributor to CO₂ emissions, emitting 5.6
Gt of CO₂. Combine that number with the number one
contributor, China at 8.3 Gt, and together, China and the
United States “emit more than 40% of the global carbon
dioxide” emissions worldwide (see Table 1). According to
Carol Dahl, the buildup of CO₂ in our atmosphere is
“indisputably coming from human-made sources”; and about
80% from burning fossil fuels for electricity [1]. And those
percentages are only expected to rise.
FIGURE 1 [3]
Table showing CO₂ output for various countries.
HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS IN THE BMW
I8
Hannah Schell, hes62@pitt.edu, Mahboobin,
10:00, Claire Walsh, clw115@pitt.edu, Vidic 2:00
Abstract-To combat Earth’s finite quantity of fossil
fuels, in 2008, the U.S. government began funding research
regarding hydrogen as an alternative fuel to natural gas and
crude oil. Using hydrogen fuel cells, such as the BMW I8,
instead of the traditional gasoline powered engine is
important, because reducing the amount of net carbon
emissions to a scintilla or nothing at all will, ultimately, reduce
our impact on our environment.
In order to obtain energy from hydrogen fuel, we need
to “undo” the process of photoelectrochemical water splitting,
or the way we originally obtain the hydrogen fuel. To do this,
the fuel cell requires O2 and H2 as reactants to produce H2O
and electricity. The process happens within an electrode
battery combination and, ultimately, produces a usable
electric circuit. As more of these fuel cells are stacked, a larger
circuit is created and thus, more power is available.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are some of the lowest
emission vehicles and most efficient compared to the hybrid
and electric car, and are therefore major competitors.
However, without a commercial implementation of these
vehicles, such technologies cannot reach their full potentials.
One developing commercial hydrogen fuel cell
vehicle is the BMW I8. It is within this essay that we will
discuss how this vehicle works, why it is effective, why we
believe it is important that vehicles similar to the BMW I8
should be implemented/marketed commercially, and what the
drawbacks and the implementations of this vehicle are.
Through the employment of a hydrogen powered fleet, we
could minimize the volume of carbon released; reduce our
dependency on foreign oil; lower fuel costs; and make
transportation cleaner and more efficient.
Since 1850, the total energy production and use has
increased from “0.2 billion tons of equivalent oil to 11.4 billion
tons of equivalent oil” in 2005. It is also predicted that global
demand for energy will increase anywhere between “27% and
61% by 2050. However, if we continue to heavily rely on
cheap fossil-fuel-intensive electricity generation in the shortterm, we will leave ourselves with less adaptability to other
technologies in the future. Sustainable energy use is the
Keywords –BMW Hydrogen 7, BMW I8, Hydrogen
fuel cells, Hydrogen fuel cell cars, Hydrogen I8 prototype
Hydrogen vehicles
University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering
2016-03-04
1
Hannah Schell
Claire Walsh
solution to this dilemma. The following table provides energy
data about the top 20 Energy Sustainability Index countries.
ESE is defined as energy security or the “effective
management of primary energy supply...the reliability of
energy infrastructure, and the ability of energy providers to
meet current and future demand.” EQ is energy equity which
“contains indicators about the accessibility and affordability of
energy supply across the population.” ESU stands for
environmental sustainability and “is related to energy
efficiency at the supply and demand ends as well as energy
supply from renewable and other low-carbon sources”. As
expressed by the numbers in the table, the U.S. is ranked 15th
with a 9.14/10.00 or “A” in energy security, a 10.00/10.00 or
“A” for energy equity, and a 3.35/10.00 or “C” for energy
sustainability. Comparing the scores of the United States to the
leading countries’ scores such as Switzerland, we find that
along with a 10.00/10.00 in sustainability and efficiency, high
scores in energy security and energy equity are also attainable.
It will be a challenge to assure an “environmentally
sustainable, reliable, affordable, and socially acceptable”
energy, but we can infer that if Switzerland did it, so can we
[7]. Part of that solution must be hydrogen fuel, fuel cells, and
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Alternative energy used in vehicles has evolved
immensely over the years. Starting from the traditional
petroleum usage becoming the United States’ most used fuel
in the 1950’s (with little to no consideration of alternative
energy) to solar energy, natural gas and hydrogen power
becoming growing contenders in recent years [5]. In 2014,
President Obama recognized the potential for hydrogen to
become a major transportation fuel source and the US
Department of Energy began heavily funding companies such
as FedEx Express and the Center for Transportation and the
Environment to research this viability. By funding these
companies, commercial use of hydrogen has been
implemented as a fuel in controlled and monitored
environments like in airports and delivery transportation
systems. Success was accelerated. It is now estimated that “the
primary energy demanded by the transportation sector will
increase from 2470 mToe in 2008 to 3578 mToe in 2035” and
that the energy demanded in the form of hydrogen in 2035 is
likely to double or even triple to somewhere between 42.4 and
98.9 million tons, as “the transportation sector is one of the
most likely areas of application of hydrogen” [2]. However, in
2014, an IEEE published article highlighted that while
hydrogen is “abundant, renewable and non-polluting”, it is still
“30 percent more expensive to carry the hydrogen via pipelines
than to carry natural gas” [8]. In addition, while 1 kilogram
[2.2 pounds] of hydrogen has an equivalent amount of energy
as 1 gallon of gasoline does, the large volume and density of
hydrogen make it difficult to store a large amount in a compact
space to achieve an equivalent driving range of a traditional
vehicle [alt fuels data ctr]. However, these numbers, as Luis
Gandia points out, are “conservative” and that while this
specific outlook looks challenging it is “not impossible,
especially if there is a dynamic market stimulating the
production and consumption of hydrogen” [2]. For this reason,
at this point in time, it is impractical to use hydrogen as a
transportation fuel source when there is a more cost efficient
alternative. Solutions to these drawbacks will have to come
through more research, a stronger infrastructure, more
marketing, and ultimately, more funding.
Hydrogen can be obtained through numerous
different processes, including natural gas reforming, coal
gasification, and biomass gasification. However, one of the
only processes that emits little to no harmful byproducts, such
as carbon dioxide, is photoelectrochemical (PEC) water
splitting. Within this process itself there are at least four
different variations. However, speaking in general terms, in
order for this process to be effective, a system similar to a
photovoltaic panel must be set up. The process begins as UV
rays from sunlight hit the anode and supply the surrounding
water molecules from the electrolyte with energy. Once the
molecules accumulate enough energy to overcome the
activation energy required by the first half reaction provided
below, the bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
break to form oxygen gas, hydrogen ions, and electrons. The
FIGURE 2 [5]
Table showing various countries’ energy security, energy
equity, and environmental sustainability.
HYDROGEN AS A FUEL SOURCE
2
Hannah Schell
Claire Walsh
oxygen gas (O2) bubbles off to be collected at the surface,
while the hydrogen ions and electrons go through another half
reaction at the cathode. Since hydrogen ions are simply
individual protons with one attached neutron, they carry an
equal but the opposite charge as electrons and bond together to
form hydrogen gas according to the second equation listed
below.
2H2O + 1.23V→ 4H+ +2 O2 +4e4H+ + 4e- => 2H2
PEC water splitting is classified as a “long-term
technology pathway”, because it offers the “potential for high
efficiency output at low operating temperatures using cost
effective materials” [energy.gov ]. However, improvements
still need to be made with the efficiency, durability, and costs
of the reactor and process. For example, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory developed their own PEC
system that produces hydrogen at a 12.4% solar-to-hydrogen
conversion efficiency. This is the main reason easier and
cheaper options such as natural gas reforming will continue to
dominate the hydrogen production industry [nrel].
with the electrons and oxygen ions to form water and heat. A
single MEA produces a minimal amount of electricity so
hundreds of cells must be stacked and connected in series to
produce a sufficient output of electrical current [systems].
HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS
In recent years, vehicle improvement consists mostly
of efficiency and sustainability. With this focus, fuel cell
vehicles were created. Fuel cell vehicle research has mostly
consisted of polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells.
Generally put, PEM fuel cells (the current research focus) use
the chemical energy stored in hydrogen to cleanly and
efficiently produce water, heat, and electricity [fuel cell.gov].
A PEM fuel cell has three main components that make this
conversion possible: the membrane electrode assembly
(MEA), bipolar plates, and gaskets. Within the MEA itself,
there is a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM), catalyst
layers, and gas diffusion layers (GDLs) pictured in the figure
below. The PEM is a semipermeable plastic wrap like material
that allows protons to pass through, but not electrons. The
catalyst layers consist of an anode, or negatively charged, layer
and a cathode, a positively charged, layer that are placed on
opposite sides of the electrolyte. The GDLs are made of sheets
of carbon paper and are placed outside of the catalyst layers.
Two bipolar plates made of metal surround each cell in the
stack of MEAs so electricity can be conducted between cells
and physical durability can be added to the stack. Gaskets,
made of a “rubbery polymer”, are placed in between two
bipolar plates and around the MEA to provide “a gas-tight
seal” [parts].
The entire process commences when hydrogen fuel
and oxygen gas, in the form of air, are fed in through the GDLs.
From here, hydrogen reacts with the negatively charged anode
catalyst layer to form hydrogen ions and electrons while
oxygen reacts with the positively charged cathode catalyst
layer to form oxygen ions. The electrons create a current, move
from the anode catalyst layer, pass through a battery and end
at the cathode catalyst layer. The hydrogen ions are guided
through the PEM to the cathode catalyst layer where they react
FIGURE 3 [4]
As previously discussed, the transportation sector is
the most likely area to apply hydrogen as a fuel. But, according
to Luis Gandia, only light duty vehicles will be considered for
fuel cell application. We can analyze the efficiency of the
overall process from producing hydrogen fuel to when it is
converted into electricity to power the fuel cell vehicle. To
start, energy is lost in every step of the hydrogen to vehicle
propulsion process: “production, storage, distribution, delivery
and end use.” Gandia reports his own findings which state that
producing hydrogen fuel has an overall 75% efficiency when
converting electricity from AC/DC to feed the water
electrolyzer. Within the hydrogen delivery process, assuming
an average compression of 25 Mpa of the hydrogen gas, the
efficiency is 72%. When the actual efficiency of the fuel cell
is about 50% and the efficiency in which the fuel cell operates
is assumed to be 90%, the overall efficiency is estimated to be
only 23% [luis]. However, when comparing these numbers to
the Fuel Cells Technology Program of the U.S. Department of
Energy, a PEM fuel cell yields 60% efficiency for
transportation, not 50%. Therefore, the overall efficiency will
increase to about 28% [energy.gov].
HISTORY OF ALTERNATIVE
ENERGY IN BMW VEHICLES
BMW’s First Hydrogen Car
3
Hannah Schell
Claire Walsh
In 2005, BMW released the Hydrogen 7, claiming it
to be the first production hydrogen vehicle. There were only
100 ever produced, making them very rare to own. During the
design phase, German researchers caught a major
breakthrough in hydrogen technology. Hydrogen gas has a
very low density, which would mandate a massive fuel tank
compared to a standard gasoline powered vehicle. Based off of
an existing production diesel engine, BMW technicians were
able to design a new cylinder head for hydrogen power [10].
By using computational fluid dynamics, essentially calculating
how hydrogen will flow most efficiently, a new combustion
chamber was designed for the engine for maximum power
output. Researchers who collaborated with BMW developed a
high pressure injection system with would now be able to
pump hydrogen into the combustion chamber at a pressure of
about 4500 pounds per square inch (psi). Furthermore, they
also found that a combination of spark and hot surface ignition
of the vehicle would produce the maximum efficiency for the
car. Through all of these changes to the standard diesel engine,
the efficiency of the fuel cell was augmented to 42 percent,
comparable to a standard turbo-diesel engine [11]. The
increase in efficiency of the hydrogen is what allows us to have
fuel tanks small enough where there is no need to supplement
the vehicle with a gasoline tank.
BMW’s Current Hydrogen Fuel Cell
The Hydrogen 7 was BMW’s first attempt at creating
a completely hydrogen powered vehicle. While it was a
success in terms of scientific achievement, there were only 100
ever produced as a way of establishing a name for BMW in the
energy conservation market. Currently, the company is
producing a hydrogen powered model of their i8 supercar.
What this promises is that BMW will release highly efficient
and ecologically conservative luxury vehicles to the general
public, which will lead to the popularization of low emissions
vehicles. While they may have been the first to release the
technology, many other automotive companies are also
developing their own hydrogen fuel cells to power their
vehicles. The globalization of clean energy would greatly
reduce the volume of carbon dioxide gas released into the
atmosphere as a result of traditional internal combustion
engines.
BMW model. The low-weight carbon fiber design makes it
aerodynamic and energy efficient.
FIGURE 4 [1]
The current prototype for the i8 hydrogen was built in
2012 [6] and is powered entirely by a hydrogen fuel
Cell [Figure 2]. The fuel tank will be located under the body
of the vehicle towards the center. This is connected to the
hydrogen fuel cell which then powers the motor [Figure 3].
The fuel cell, as described previously, strips the hydrogen
atoms of a single electron, then produces water vapor and
electricity as a byproduct. The electricity flows through into
the motor where the electric energy is turned into mechanical
energy via a pulsating rod. When electrons pass into the motor
they encounter a rod. The current through this specially
designed rod turns an axle which provides the energy to turn
the wheels, propelling the vehicle either forwards or
backwards [9]. While the Hydrogen 7 enabled the driver to
choose between gas, hydrogen and hybrid, the i8 Hydrogen
runs
exclusively
on
a
hydrogen
fuel
cell.
BMW i8
The i8 was originally designed as a luxury hybrid
vehicle aimed to become a pioneer in the electric car market.
The hybrid model ran on a combination of petroleum and
electricity. While driving without the use of the electric motor,
the battery is charged directly by the petroleum engine. The
battery receives power whenever the driver engages the
brakes, regardless of whether the car in hybrid mode. The
mechanical energy from the brake pads is converted into
electrical energy and then stored in the battery for later usage
[11]. The i8 also boasts the lowest center of gravity of any
FIGURE 5 [2]
Image of the hydrogen fuel tank, shown in blue, the
hydrogen fuel cell, shown in orange, and the motor shown
in green.
4
Hannah Schell
Claire Walsh
identified as the need for cost reduction, which requires a
substantial increase in R&D investments, and policy support,
because hydrogen is generally not on the agenda of the
ministries responsible for environment protection and energy
security. The roadmap objectives for 2050 include 80% of
light-duty vehicles and city buses fueled with CO₂-free
hydrogen, reaching more than 80% CO₂ reduction in
passenger car transport and the use of hydrogen in stationary
end-use applications in remote locations and island grids. As a
consequence of this roadmap, a Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Join
Technology Initiative was established as a European
public/private partnership for hydrogen and its end-use
applications.54The Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Plan
outlines the strategy, activities and plans of the U.S.
Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program.55
This document was completely revised in September 2011
after its previous update in 2006; by that year, it was known as
the Hydrogen Posture Plan. The new program seeks to act as a
catalyst in the transition from R&D to demonstration and early
deployment of hydrogen by integrating real-world technology
demonstrations, public outreach and education and market
transformation activities. To this end, a detailed technology
development timeline and key milestones are established
between 2010 and 2020 in the areas of fuel cell R&D,
hydrogen production, delivery and storage, manufacturing
R&D, technology validation, education, safety, codes and
standards, market transformation and system analysis” [2].
Where are the Hydrogen Cars
Hydrogen powered vehicles are clean and efficient. If
designed properly, they release zero emissions into the
atmosphere. Looking at a well-traveled highway today, there
would be a very small number of hydrogen fuel celled vehicles
you come in contact with. This can be largely attributed to the
high cost of owning and maintaining Hydrogen Fuel celled
vehicles. The cars themselves are expensive, Toyota’s Mirai is
the most affordable option, costing a staggering $50,000. The
BMW I8, as is the nature of supercars, will cost over $100,000
[8]; too much money for the average middle class worker.
Assuming one can afford this, therein lies the problem of
filling your car with hydrogen. There are only a few small
Hydrogen fueling stations that are located almost exclusively
in California, which limits the customer base to only a few
wealthy Californians who are interested in saving the planet.
Electric and hybrid (combination of electric and gasoline)
powered vehicles have a much stronger grip on the market
base. Almost every person living in the United States has
electricity in their homes; it is a widely available resource, and
it’s much less expensive than gasoline. What this indicates is
that if oil and gasoline companies invest in popularizing
hydrogen fueling stations, more people will consider buying
hydrogen vehicles and thus lead to both the popularization of
hydrogen cars and consequently improvements in the fuel cell
itself.
HYDROGEN WORLDWIDE
DOWN THE LINE
Production of hydrogen powered vehicles will have a
substantial effect on the volume of CO₂ emitted by humans.
Commercialization is the key to popularizing the technology
to the point where it is affordable enough for everyone to own
a hydrogen powered vehicle and thusly reduce carbon
emissions due to transportation to almost nothing. BMW has
paved the way before with their Hydrogen 7 model and will
continue to break barriers with the i8. While other models may
be more affordable, none can match the efficiency of the i8 due
to the improvements made on their fuel cell.
Preliminary data from the International Energy
Agency (IEA) indicate that global emissions of carbon dioxide
from the energy sector stalled in 2014, marking the first time
in 40 years in which there was a halt or reduction in emissions
of the greenhouse gas that was not tied to an economic
downturn [4]. Global emissions of carbon dioxide stood at 32.3
billion tons in 2014, unchanged from the preceding year. The
IEA data suggest that efforts to mitigate climate change may
be having a more pronounced effect on emissions than had
previously been thought [4]. Hydrogen fuel cell technology is
expected to undergo major advancements during the next few
decades. It is predicted that by 2050, 80% of small commercial
vehicles and public transportation busses will be fueled by
hydrogen [2].
“As it has been demonstrated for the renewables, the
deployment of hydrogen will likely fail without governmental
support. Main initiatives in this regard correspond to the
European and U.S. authorities. HyWays is the name of the
European hydrogen energy roadmap.53 this roadmap was
designed with the aim of helping to overcome the economic,
technological and institutional barriers that make the
introduction of hydrogen in the energy system difficult. One of
its drivers is the fact that the possibility of taking a leader
position in the worldwide market for hydrogen technologies
would provide new economic opportunities and strengthen
European competitiveness. The main challenges were
REFERENCES
[1] Dahl, Carol. "12." International Energy Markets Understanding Pricing, Policies, and Profits. 2nd ed. N.p.:
PennWell, 2015. N. pag. Print
[2] Gandia, Luis M., Gurutze Arzamedi, Pedro M.
Dieguez, and Luis M. G. "1." Renewable Hydrogen
Technologies: Production, Purification, Storage, Applications
and Safety. N.p.: Elsevier, 2013. N. pag. Print.
[3] Gandia, Luis M., Gurutze Arzamedi, Pedro M.
Dieguez, and Luis M. G. "18." Renewable Hydrogen
Technologies: Production, Purification, Storage, Applications
and Safety. N.p.: Elsevier, 2013. N. pag. Print.
[4] "Global Energy-related Emissions of Carbon
Dioxide Stalled in 2014." Intnational Energy Agency. N.p., 03
Mar.
2015.
Web.
01
Mar.
2016.
5
Hannah Schell
Claire Walsh
“Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle”. Alternative Fuels Data
Center. U.S. Department of Energy. (online website).
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/fuel_cell.html
G. Frenette. D. Forthoffer. (2009). “Economic &
commercial viability of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles from an
automotive manufacturer perspective.” International Journal
of
Hydrogen
Energy.
(online
article).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036031990
9003541
J. Brink Choosing Your Topic Video Tutorial.
University
Library
System.
(online
video)
http://www.library.pitt.edu/other/files/il/fresheng/index.html.
“Hydrogen Basics.” Alternative Fuels Data Center.
U.S.
Department
of
Energy.
(online
website).
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/hydrogen_basics.html
“Hydrogen Production.” Energy.gov. (online
website).
http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogenproduction
"Hydrogen Production Processes." Hydrogen
Production Processes. The Department of Energy. (website)
http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-productionprocesses.
K. Kantola. (2015). "Hydrogen Cars Now."
Hydrogen
Cars
Now.
(Online
blog)
<http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com>
"Parts of a Fuel Cell." Energy.gov. Department of
Energy,
n.d.
Web.
28
Feb.
2016.
<http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/parts-fuelcell>.
M. Veenstra. C. Gearhart. (2012). “A Pareto Frontier
Analysis of Renewable-Energy Consumption, Range, and
Cost for Hydrogen Fuel Cell vs. Battery Electric Vehicles”
http://papers.sae.org/2012-01-1224/
R. P. Murphy. (2014). "U.S. Government Policy and
Oil
Prices."
IER.
(online
article).
http://instituteforenergyresearch.org/privacy-policy/
(2015). “Fuel Cell Animation.” Energy.gov. (online
website).
http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/downloads/infographic-fuelcell-electric-vehicle
(2014). “Could hydrogen vehicles take over as the
'green' car of choice?” American Chemical Society. (online
article). http://m.phys.org/news/2014-11-hydrogen-vehiclesgreen-car-choice.html
<http://www.iea.org/newsroomandevents/news/2015/march/g
lobal-energy-related-emissions-of-carbon-dioxide-stalled-in2014.html>.
[5] "Historical Timeline." ProCon.org Headlines.
N.p.,
13
June
2013.
Web.
27
Feb.
2016.
<http://alternativeenergy.procon.org/view.timeline.php?timeli
neID=000015>.
[6] Pattni, Vijay. “BMW’s Experimental HydrogenPowered i8 is Pure Evil”. Top Gear. BBC Worldwide Ltd.
(2015).
<http://www.topgear.com/car-news/futuretech/bmws-experimental-hydrogen-powered-i8-pure-evil>
[7] Thomas, Ken D. "6." Handbook of Research on
Sustainable Development and Economics. N.p.: IGI Global,
2015. N. pag. Print.
[8] Silverstein, Ken. "Obama Administration Wants
to Speed Up Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles." N.p., 13 Jan. 2014.
Web.
27
Feb.
2016.
<http://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/transportation/efficienc
y/obama-administration-wants-to-speed-uphydrogenpowered-vehicles>.
[9] Woodford, Chris. “Electric Motors”.
explainthatstuff. (March, 2015). (online blog).
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/electricmotors.html
[10] (2015). "THE MOST PROGRESSIVE
SPORTS CAR." BMW i8. BMW. (online website).
<http://www.bmw.com/com/en/newvehicles/i/i8/2014/showr
oom/index.html>.
[11] (2015). BMW website.
http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/technology/efficient_d
ynamics/phase_2/clean_energy/bmw_hydrogen_7.html
IMAGES
[1] BMW I8 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Drive Designboom
06. designboom 1999-2012. (Online Digital image).
<http://www.designboom.com/technology/bmw-i8-hydrogenfuel-cell-07-02-2015/>
[2] Boerui, Horatiu. BMWBLOG. (December 15,
2011. http://www.bmwblog.com/2011/12/15/bmw-and-gmto-cooperate-on-hydrogen-fuel-cells/
[3] Dahl, Carol. "12." International Energy Markets Understanding Pricing, Policies, and Profits. 2nd ed. N.p.:
PennWell, 2015. N. pag. Print
[4] Major components of an American Honda Motor
Corporation FCV. www.fueleconomy.gov. U.S. Department
of
Energy,
(Online
digital
image).
<http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fuelcell.shtml>
[5] Thomas, Ken D. "6." Handbook of Research on
Sustainable Development and Economics. N.p.: IGI Global,
2015. N. pag. Print.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank everyone who has helped us
accomplish writing this research paper: Amanda Brant for
providing helpful feedback on the specificity of our topic; the
writing center for engineers for providing such detailed and
helpful instructions to follow; Jacalynn Sharp for giving
support, guidance, and constructive criticism; and our families
for always there for us.
SOURCES CONSULTED
6