W3.2 c, d, e The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
c) Discuss your understanding of any TWO of the following
i) The Yogic Concept of Mind
ii) Kleshas
iii) Kriya Yoga
iv) The significance of Ishwara
v) Siddhis
d) Describe the Yamas and Niyamas and discuss their relevance in the modern
western world.
e) Discuss Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi
Ginny Clother 2946 words
The Yogic Concept of Mind
According to Satchidananda (1990 p4) the essence of Patanjali’s message is ‘if you can
control the rising of the mind into ripples you will experience Yoga’.
Mind in total is known as chittam and this encompasses ahamkara (ego), buddhi
(intellect), manas (desire/ connection with sensory input). The default status of the mind
is thought to be peaceful until disturbed by chitta vrittis or mind modifications.
Satchidananda (1990) alludes to the internal focus of yoga, suggesting that liberation is
achieved in the mind regardless of external events. He gives as an example the differing
attitudes of prisoners and prison guards to a prison. He suggests that a yogic attitude for a
prisoner to adopt would be to approach time spent in prison as a possibility for
reformation and change.
In verse 4 Book 1 of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, Satchidananda (1990) discusses the
confusion of thoughts with self. He advises that the perceived self is nothing more than
mind modifications. The underlying essence is what is universal.
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According to Patanjali (Satchidananda 1990) there are five categories of chitta vrittis or
mind modifications which are knowledge, misconception, verbal delusion, sleep and
memory. The ultimate aim is to rid the mind of all thoughts (‘all the thoughts as garbage’
p14). The first step along that path is to identify the good and the bad thoughts. The good
are considered to be the thoughts produced either by seeing something yourself, by
inference or by scriptural testimony.
Scientific understanding of brain processing identifies the difficulties with assigning
validity to our direct perceptions. ‘when people…are presented with ambiguous
information relevant to their views, they will see what they want to see (Wiseman 2011
p28 ). We tend to see what we expect to see, especially if it confirms our own view of the
world. Patanjali (Satchidananda 1990) acknowledges this in Book 4 Verse 15 ‘due to
differences in various minds, perception of the same object may vary.’
Likewise inference is guided by our own perceptions. Human psychology has
substantiated that as humans we tend to behave as herd animals in that we will try to
conform to the majority behaviour/ opinion. Witness the Stanley Milgram 1963
experiments when ordinary humans behaved abominably because the social milieu
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developed in the study caused participants to perceive and infer that this was the correct
way to behave (Hayes 1993 p51).
Finally reliance on scriptural testimony would have been uncontroversial in the era in
which these testimonies were recorded as they would have been contemporaneous.
Scriptural ‘facts’ are less convincing 2000 years down the line. If we take a pick and mix
approach to scripture for example to the Bible, choosing what we like (treat others as you
would be treated yourself) and discarding the rest (attitudes to slavery, treatment of
women and gays) we are again reinforcing our own prejudices. In 2011 it is hard to
accept Book 4 Verse 41 in a literal sense when Patanjali (Satchidananda 1990) assures
the advanced yogi of bodily radiance (p140) or invisibility (p186) or levitation (p196).
Patanjali (Satchidananda 1990) advocates continuous practise over a considerable period
of time in order to maintain an attitude of non attachment (vairagya) / dispassion/ a state
without personal or selfish desire. Obstacles to freeing the mind are listed which include
disease, dullness, doubt, carelessness, laziness, sensuality, false perception and failure to
persevere in practise. Patanjali (Satchidananda 1990) suggests these obstacles should be
minimised by concentration, pranayama and a serene attitude to other people and to their
action and/ or behaviour. Samskaras are thought forms- habitual responses which
Satchidananda (1990 p94) states cannot be removed by meditation. Chittam stores
experiences which can surface at a different time or become habits. Dukhya or distress
and suffering is caused by attachment. Patanjali advises that obstacles can be removed by
meditation if they are in an active state.
Satchidananda (1990 p167) suggests as part of pratyahara or control of the mind that a
celibate man ‘should stay away from women…he shouldn’t …associate with them…’ for
fear of arousal of his senses. Satchidananda (1990) does not mention if women who
choose to be celibate should also avoid men and has not acknowledged same sex arousal.
He has not clearly identified to this reader why celibacy may be encouraged along the
path to enlightenment apart from ‘avoiding sensual pleasures’ (p167). It is a shame that
Satchidananda (1990) seems to be allying yoga with other major religions with regard to
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encouraging people to dissociate themselves from their animal nature. I am not using
animal here in a derogatory sense but acknowledging that humans are mammals. We
forget this at our peril. I personally consider that sensual pleasure undertaken in an
environment of ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya (as in respect for others and oneself)
and aparigraha should be promoted rather than criticised. Mammals of all ages and
species experience considerable morbidity if deprived of touch and physical contact.
The idea of concentration is to focus the mind, meditation can be the result allowing a
diminution of negative thoughts and anxieties.
Purusha is the unchanging essence underlying the mind modifications, that is universal
and not individual. Praktiki is composed of the gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas) and by it’s
action gives experience to purusha.
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Kleshas
Klesas or Kleshas are recognised to be obstacles to yoga. They are listed in Book II Verse
3 (Satchidananda 1990) as avidya (ignorance), asmita (egoism), raga (attachment),
dvesha (hatred or aversion) and ahinivesah (clinging to bodily life). It is thought that
experience of these obstacles follows a linear path with the experience of ignorance
leading to an egotistical state, attachment to desires, hatred to those that thwart us and
attachment to life.
Avidya is translated by Satchidananda (1990) to be dormant, feeble, intercepted or
sustained. He interprets this passage (Book II verse 4) as either unrealised ignorance
giving the example of the dormant ignorance experienced by a baby (there are parallels
here with the Abrahamic religious concept of original sin). He continues by asserting that
the weak avidya of a yogi means the ignorance has lessened but has not yet been entirely
transcended. Intercepted ignorance is interpreted as the state of the keen beginner who is
doing their best to be virtuous but that this requires constant vigilance. Sustained
ignorance is purported to be the state of all those who are not trying to control the klesasthey will not achieve enlightenment (echoes here again of the Abrahamic religions and
the exclusivity of transcendence/ heaven).
Ignorance is defined in Book II Verse 5 as not taking the yogic view of the world
especially if not accepting the concept of Purusha.
Egoism is defined as not recognising that the self does not exist and that it is only
modifications of the mindstuff in a vessel that is the receptacle for Purusha.
Raga or attachment is associated with pleasurable experience and aversion (dvesha) to
pain. Attachment and aversion are looked on as ‘impediments on the spiritual path’
Satchidananda (1990 p90). I would argue that attachment and aversion can also be sound
physiological mechanisms to protect the body from harm.
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Unfortunately the yogic concept of mind is that the body is just a vehicle to carry around
purusha. This dualistic concept does not fit with current understanding of the brain and
body. The modern idea is that there is flow between body and brain. The flow is not one
way as there is interconnectedness on a multitude of measurable levels. Other major
religions rely on similar rejection of the physical body it is a shame that this translation of
the sutras seems to advocate the same attitude (see page 7 of this essay last paragraph)
The posited reward for piety is either for divine selection to an exclusive heaven or for
moving up the hierarchical reincarnation cycle. To my mind both of these metaphysical
explanations of what happens after death have been manufactured to provide solace for
us humans facing the terrifying reality that each of us is a small, weak primate, who lives
a relatively short life.
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Some of us have been lucky in the accident of conception with regard to the resources
available to us. Many have been unlucky. If there were no religion and no concept of
heaven or reincarnation, there would be more incentive for people to be nicer to each
other in the here and now and not to tolerate prejudice or violence and discrimination. For
the religious there is always the hope that all will be better when given a second chance
in either heaven or a new life. The meek shall inherit the earth and certainly won’t rock
the boat in the meantime which is rather convenient for the unscrupulous.
Abhinivesah clinging to life is the final klesha. Satchidananda (1990) says that getting a
new body is a great positive so consequently we should be happy to leave the old one and
not just cling on in a sentimental way. This underscores the dualistic approach to the
mind and body already discussed earlier.
Klesas cause karmas which are actions and reactions and underlie the concept of
reincarnation, as karma has to be worked through until no new karma is created at the
moment of enlightenment. I take exception to the idea that humans sit at the pinnacle of
the karmic cycle Satchidananda (1990 p 98) ‘if your thoughts are animalistic, the karmas
may call for an animal’s body…if someone is always cunning in this life…expressed
through a fox’s body….or eat excessively …a pig’s body… a fox …may have been a
miserly cunning business person…a scorpion…a big employer … ‘stinging’ his or her
employees…’ This is consistent with the Abrahamic religious view of humans being
above all other animals. In my opinion this is a human centric and speciest argument.
Yamas
There are eight stages or limbs of yoga that Patanjali (Satchidananda 1990) recommends
the yogi follow in order to achieve enlightenment. The first of these are Yamas or
abstinences. These include ahimsa non violence, satya truthfulness, asteya non stealing,
brahmacharya continence, aparigraha non greed.
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I am relieved to reach the part of Book II of Patanjali’s sutras which I do not find
controversial. There is no doubt that for human society to flourish it is necessary to care
for the weak, old and ill of all species, gender and race. I would argue that the yamas
support these concerns.
The first yama is non violence, specifically not causing pain, which requires cultivating
sensitivity to others. The first step to achieving this goal that every human can easily
address is by examining their diet, their clothing and their behaviour and trying to
objectively assess the individual impact of these choices on other animals (human and
non human) both directly, and indirectly (via the environment).
The second yama is satya-being truthful as long as this does not conflict with ahimsa.
Asteya involves managing desire, trying not to covet what belongs to others, cultivating
contentment. This necessarily involves non attachment.
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Brahmacharya Satchidananda (1990) translates interchangeably as continence/ celibacy. I
am not sure if this translation is necessarily correct or useful. Continence as synonymous
with moderation would fit well with ahimsa and asteya. However I am not convinced that
celibacy has any great benefit. It has tended to cause great individual distress when
imposed by religions on its adherents. Satchidananda (1990p138) states that ‘seminal
fluid gives strength and stamina to the brain and nerves. Nervous debility is caused by a
lack of stamina because it has all been drained away’. Science has laid this myth to rest.
Masturbation is not deleterious to health and the fact that Satchidananda (1990) is stating
this nonsense leaves me saddened. He goes on to state that seminal fluid will provide
energy if stored properly. He suggests the young and the old should not engage in sex and
certainly not outside marriage (p138-140). I strongly resist any teachings that suggest
people should feel ashamed of their sexual activities. All should be acceptable as long as
the principles of ahimsa, satya and asteya have been preserved.
Aparigraha, again ties in with modern concepts of sharing. We should care for others, and
live simply so that others may simply live. The other translation that Satchidananda
(1990) posits is related to not accepting gifts unless the receptor can feel free of
obligation.
Niyamas
There are 5 observances or niyamas and this is the second stage of Patanjali’s eight stages
of yoga. The five are saucha purity, samtosha contentment, tapah accepting and not
causing pain, svadhyaya studying spiritual books, isvarapranidhanani worship of God.
‘By purification arises disgust for one’s own body and for contact with other bodies’
Verse 40 Book Two Satchidananda 1990 . I’m not sure if the problem arises from
Satchidananda’s translation or his expansion on the theme ‘ your own body is
impure….perspiration if foul…our bodies are the embodiment of dirt…’ This dualistic
message conflicts with our knowledge of how our body and it’s functioning will have a
great impact on our conscious and unconscious perception and interaction with the world.
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We are mammals and our brain and body are not separate. There is no soul, no separate
‘mind’; just an illusion created by our body as a collection of processes and systems that
try to maintain the individual organism for sufficient length of time to allow reproduction
(Wiseman 2011). The body is self cleaning and is not disgusting or dirty. We do have
sufficient mental processing to decide how we want to spend the brief precious moments
of sentient awareness of our life. Far better to spend that time being happy and making
other animals (including humans) happy than developing aversions to our bodies (or
other people’s bodies) and normal bodily processes.
Samtosha, contentment. Ties in beautifully with all the yamas and the development of
non attachment.
Tapah accepting and not causing pain/ austerities. Satchidananda (1990) elaborates on
this explaining that tapas is the root of the verb to burn. He mentions fasting as a means
of burning fat and ‘toxins’, but unfortunately he has little physiological basis for this
assertion. Encouraging fasting for physical benefit is not helpful as it is not of proven
benefit to the body. Of the other examples he gives these include not retaliating when
others are unpleasant to us. This would already be covered by ahimsa.
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I do take issue when he quotes ‘no pain, no gain’ and implies that we can accept the
suffering of others including their poverty. Presumably because then they build up good
karma for the next life. So he would seem to be suggesting that we are absolved from
responsibility to help them or help them help themselves in this life as it’s all just karma.
This attitude certainly keeps the forelock tugging pious peasants in their place alongside
similar advice from the other major religions. ‘There’s nothing wrong with the world.’
Satchidananda (1990 p6).
Svadyhyayad, the study of spiritual books for communion with the deity. But as so many
of our human deities in their written manifestations are speciest, misanthropic,
misogynist, expansionist, supporters of the status quo, prosetylising, arrogant and
generally in favour of the religious crusade/ jihad I would only turn to scripture if I
wanted to make myself thoroughly depressed. If I wanted to uplift myself and cultivate
compassion and respect for the universe, our planet and all its inhabitants I would turn to
science and the writings of all those who have wondered at it’s beauty but not resorted to
making up a giant sky fairy who demands blind adoration and annihilation of the
unbelievers.
Isvarapranidhanat surrender to God. As far as I am concerned this has no relevance not
only to the modern western world but the world full stop and I perceive it to be actively
harmful to humans, animals and the planet.
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Dharana
Dharana or concentration is the sixth stage of the eight stages of yoga. One of the
physical signs of concentration is a retention or kumbhaka of the breath. Thus pranayama
or breathing control can be a route to follow to help to learn how to discipline the mind.
By removing the veil over the mind, concentration becomes possible.
Dhyana
Dhyana or meditation is the seventh stage of the eight stages of yoga. Satchidananda
(1990) admonishes that repetitive daily practise is not sufficient if distracted by desire.
Non attachment must be cultivated.
Samadhi
Samadhi or contemplation is the eighth stage of the eight stages of yoga. Book II Verse
45 states ‘By total surrender to God, Samadhi is attained’. Satchidananda (1990 p162)
states that when Samadhi is achieved breathing stops for several hours.
However Samadhi is only possible when perfection has been achieved in concentration
and meditation. There are different categories of Samadhi. Distinguished samprajnata and
non distinguished asamprajnata. The distinguished consists of four forms. The first form
practised is on gross objects Savitarka Samadhi, subtle Savichara Samadhi, the joyful
(sattvic) mind Sa-ananda Samadhi and on ‘I’ Sa-asmita Samadhi.
The first form involves concentration on an object. The second on an abstract idea. The
third involves no reasoning or reflection just experiencing joy. The fourth is awareness of
individuality.
Satchidananda (1990 p34) cautions that there is danger in the power unleashed by
meditation-‘these mysterious forces should not be used for selfish purposes.’
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The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali contains much wisdom that is relevant to the modern world.
However I believe just as with any other text it should be read and considered with a
critical mind. Blind faith can lead to injustice and harm. If the evidence shows that a
cherished idea should be updated then we should accept the need for change. Therefore
an open and sceptical mind will encourage development. Slavish devotion to outdated
concepts will lead to ignorance and stagnation. Patanjali as an individual or group of
individuals or consecutive series of individuals was recording wise words and practise of
an ancient time. Some of these thoughts are still useful and applicable but I would argue
that it is important not to suspend all critical faculties when reading this text.
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Bibliography/ References
Hayes N (1993) Principles of Social Psychology Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Satchidananda (1990) The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Integral Yoga Publications
Wiseman R (2011) Paranormality. Why we see what isn’t there. Macmillan
Pictures
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