General Psychology
Exam 2 Study Guide
Chapters 4-6
1. Sensation is the process of receiving stimulus and energies from the external
environment and transforming those energies into neural energy which is transmitted via
the nervous system to the brain.
2. Perception is the brain’s process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so
that it has meaning.
3. In bottom-up processing, sensory receptors register information about the external
environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation- taking in information and
trying to make sense of it.
4. Top-down processing starts with cognitive processing in the brain- we begin with some
sense of what is happening (the product of our experiences) and apply that framework to
incoming information from the world.
5. All sensations begin with sensory receptors, specialized cells that detect stimulus
information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain.
6. Synaesthesia describes an experience in which one sense induces an experience in
another sense- the senses become confused.
7. Phantom limb pain is when an amputee reports feelings of sensation or pain in a limb
which has been amputated.
8. The minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect is known as the
absolute threshold.
9. Noise is the term given to irrelevant and competing stimuli- not just sounds but any
distracting stimuli for our senses.
10. A just noticeable difference between two stimuli or the degree of difference that must
exist between the two stimuli for a difference to be detected about 50 percent of the time
is known as the difference threshold.
11. A concept proposed by E.H. Weber that states two stimuli must differ by a constant
minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different and is
called Weber’s Law.
12. The detection of information below the level of conscious awareness is called subliminal
perception.
13. Signal detection theory of perception focuses on decision making about stimuli in the
presence of uncertainty- has two major components: information acquisition and
criterion.
14. Information acquisition refers to the actual information being communicated.
15. The criterion component refers to the basis of available information on which a
judgment or decision is made.
16. The process of focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment in known as
attention.
17. The process of focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others is known
as selective attention.
18. Factors which can affect attention include: shift ability (to other stimuli), novel stimulus
focus, characteristics of different stimuli (such as size, color, or movement), and
emotional stimulus impact.
19. A predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way is known as a
perceptual set.
20. A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of
surrounding stimulation is known as sensory adaptation.
21. There are three noticeable parts of the eye:
a. Sclera- the white, outer part of the eye that helps to maintain the shape of the eye
and to protect it from injury
b. Iris- the colored part of the eye and contains muscles which control the size of the
pupil to regulate light entering the eye
c. Pupil- the black center and which opens and closes depending upon the need for
light.
22. The retina is the multi-layered light-sensitive surface in the eye that records
electromagnetic energy and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain. The
retina has two kinds of visual receptor cells which are responsible for turning
electromagnetic energy of light into a form of energy that the nervous system can
process- they are rods and cones.
23. The rods are the receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light but not useful for
color vision.
24. The cones are the receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception.
25. The structure at the back of the eye, made up of axons of the ganglion cells, that carries
visual information to the brain for further processing is known as the optic nerve.
26. The place on the retina which contains neither rods nor cones is known as the blind spot
and everyone has one- the place where the optic nerve leaves the eye on its way to the
brain.
27. The trichromatic theory states that color perception is produced by three types of cone
receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges
of wavelengths.
28. The opponent-process theory states that cells in the visual system respond to
complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited
by red and inhibited by green, whereas another might be excited by yellow and inhibited
by blue. As these cells “tire” then afterimages will reflect the opposing color from the one
initially being viewed. For instance, if you are looking at green, the afterimage would
reflect red.
29. The principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out
(figure) and those that are left over (ground) is known as the figure-ground relationship.
30. Gestalt psychology- a school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their
perceptions according to certain patterns.
31. The ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally is known as depth-perception.
32. Constancy- when we see disconnected or incomplete figure, we fill in the spaces and see
them as complete figures.
33. Proximity- when we see objects that are near each other, they tend to be seen as a unit or
a grouping.
34. Similarity- when we see objects that are similar to each other, they tend to be seen as a
unit or group.
35. Perceptual constancy- the recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even
though sensory input about them is changing.
36. Perceptual constancy has three types- size (the recognition that an object remains the
same size even though the retinal image of the object changes), shape (the recognition
that an object retains the same shape even though its orientation to the viewer changes),
and color (the recognition that an object retains the same color even though different
amounts of light fall on it.
37. Frequency, pitch, amplitude, loudness, and timbre all play a role in processing sound.read pg. 121
38. Place theory states the inner ear registers the frequency of sound by assigning each
frequency a particular spot on the basilar membrane for it to produce vibrations.
39. Frequency theory states that the perception of a sound’s frequency depends on how
often the auditory nerve fires.
40. The nerve structure that receives information about sound from the hair cells of the inner
ear and carries these neural impulses to the brain’s auditory areas is known as the
auditory nerve.
41. Pain is the sensation that warns us of damage to our bodies. There are two pain neural
pathways: fast and slow.
a. Fast- fibers connect directly with the thalamus and then to the motor and sensory
areas of the cerebral cortex- are responsible for sharp, localized pain.
b. Slow- information travels through the limbic system, a detour that delays the
arrival of information at the cerebral cortex by seconds- are responsible for
unpleasant, nagging pain.
42. The kinesthetic senses provide information about movement, posture, and orientation.
43. The vestibular senses provide information about balance and movement.
44. The semicircular canals are three fluid-filled circular tubes in the inner ear containing
the sensory receptors that detect head motion caused when we tilt or move our head
and/or body.
45. Stream of consciousness- term used by William James to describe the mind as a
continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings.
46. Consciousness- an individual’s awareness of external events and internal sensations
under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one’s
experiences.
47. Controlled processes- the more alert states of human consciousness, during which
individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal.
48. Automatic processes- states of consciousness that require little attention and do not
interfere with other ongoing activities.
49. Circadian rhythm- daily behavioral or physiological cycles- involves the sleep/wake
cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level.
50. Theories on the need for sleep- pg. 144-145!!!!!
51. There are five stages of sleep and each is characterized by a specific brain wave pattern
which distinguishes it.
52. REM sleep- also known as rapid-eye-movement sleep- the deepest and most active stage
of sleep during which dreaming occurs.
53. Different types of sleep disorders include: insomnia (the inability to sleep and is
common among individuals who are thin, stressed, and depressed), somnambulism
(sleep walking which takes place during stages 3 and 4), somniloquy (sleep talking),
nightmares (frightening dreams which occur during REM sleep), night terrors (sudden
arousal from sleep and intense fear), narcolepsy (the sudden, overpowering urge to drop
into REM sleep), and sleep apnea (individuals stop breathing because the windpipe fails
to open or because brain processes involved in respiration fail to work properly and is
characterized by numerous brief awakenings at night, sleepiness during the day, and loud
snoring punctuated by silence).
54. Manifest content- according to Freud, the surface content of a dream, containing dream
symbols that disguise the dream’s true meaning.
55. Latent content- according to Freud, a dream’s hidden content; its unconscious and true
meaning.
56. Psychoactive drugs- drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify
perception, and change mood.
57. Tolerance- the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect
58. Physical dependence- the physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant
withdrawal symptoms such as physical pain and a craving for the drug when it is
discontinued.
59. Psychological dependence- the strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional
reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and reduction of stress.
60. Addiction- either a physical or a psychological dependence, or both, on a drug.
61. Depressants- psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity and
include alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opiates. - Read carefully pgs. 156-158
62. Stimulants- psychoactive drugs that increase the central nervous system’s activity and
include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, and MDMA. – Read carefully pgs.
159-162
63. Hallucinogens- also called psychedelics, psychoactive drugs that modify a person’s
perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real and include LSD, and
Marijuana. – Read pgs. 162-163
64. Table pg. 163- Categories of Psychoactive Drugs- pay attention to different side effects
and consequences.
65. Hypnosis- an altered state of consciousness or a psychological state of altered attention
and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestion- frequently
used to treat disorders such as alcoholism, somnambulism, depression, suicidal
tendencies, post-traumatic stress disorder, migraines, overeating, diabetes, and smoking.
66. Learning- a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through
experience.
67. Associative learning- learning that occurs when we make a connection, or an
association, between two events.
68. Observational learning- learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates
another’s behavior- developed by Albert Bandura who described four main processes:
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement.
69. Classical conditioning- learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated
with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar responsedeveloped first by Ivan Pavlov and then later by John Watson.
70. Classical conditioning has four main components that are essentially paired together:
a. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces a response without prior learning
and results in the unconditioned response (UCR) which is that unlearned
reaction automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
b. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a
learned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus and is results
in the conditioned response which is the learned response that occurs after a
conditioned stimulus has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
71. There are several learning concepts based upon classical conditioning:
a. Acquisition- the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned
stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.
b. Contiguity- in order for acquisition to occur, then the CS and the UCS must be
presented close together in time
c. Contingency- in order for acquisition to occur, the CS must precede the UCS
closely in time and must serve as a predictor for the occurrence of the UCS
d. Generalization- the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS
to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
e. Discrimination- the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not
others
f. Extinction- the weakening of the CR when the UCS is absent
g. Spontaneous recovery- the process in classical conditioning by which a CR can
recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.
h. Renewal- the recovery of the CR when the organism is placed in a novel context.
72. Immunosuppression- a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a
person’s ability to fight disease- revealed in a study conducted to determine the effects of
classical conditioning on the body’s internal organ systems.
73. Taste aversion- a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association
between a particular taste and nausea- unique because it usually only requires one
pairing.
74. Operant conditioning- a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a
behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence- developed by B.F. Skinner.
75. Law of effect- developed by E.L. Thorndike- states that behaviors followed by positive
outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are
weakened.
76. Shaping- rewarding approximations of a desired behavior
77. Reinforcement- the process by which a rewarding stimulus or event following a
particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again- has two
types:
a. Positive reinforcement- an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to
the subsequent presentation of something that is good
b. Negative reinforcement- an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response
to the subsequent removal of something that is unpleasant
78. A primary reinforcer is one that is innately satisfying and does not take any learning on
the part of the organism to make it pleasurable.
79. A secondary reinforcer is one that acquires its positive value through an organism’s
experience, or a learned/conditioned reinforcer.
80. Schedules of reinforcement- specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be
reinforced- can be based upon a fixed schedule or a variable (varying) schedule and also
based upon a time interval or the number of behaviors performed, but must first start with
continuous reinforcement to establish the pairing of the behavior with the reinforcer.
81. Punishment- a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur- has
two types:
a. Positive punishment- the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a
given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.
b. Negative punishment- the removal of a positive stimulus following a given
behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior