Chapter 7 – Cognition: Thinking,
Intelligence, and Language
Thinking is the mental
representation and manipulation
of information. It is mental activity.
It is processing information
involving organizing it,
understanding it, and
communicating it.
Mental Imagery
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Mental Image is a mental picture or representation of
an object or event. It is not an actual or photographic
representation of an object, it is a
__________________ of the object or event from
memory.
CONCEPTS: Are ideas that represent a class or
category of events; *they are mental categories for
__________________ events, objects, and ideas on
the basis of their common features or properties.
Having concepts, helps us develop a sense of order
in the world and allows us to distinguish threatening
from harmless stimuli.
Types of Concepts
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Concepts have been classified in two general
categories, formal(logical) and natural.
Formal concepts are those that have clearly
defined rules for determining membership, e.g.,
a square.
Natural concepts are *those with poorly defined
or fuzzy rules for membership, e.g., furniture,
fruit, abstractions etc. These are concepts
people form as a result of their experience with
them.
Hierarchies of Concepts
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Researchers say that people order their concepts within
hierarchies of broad to narrow categories. One commonly used
hierarchy has three levels of concepts: superordinate, basiclevel, and subordinate concepts. Superordinate concepts
are broad categories, e.g., vehicle, animal, and furniture.
Within these categories are basic-level concepts, such as car,
dog, an chair and within these categories are subordinate
concepts which are even more specific, such as SUV,
greyhound, sofa. People are more likely to use basic-level
concepts when identifying objects; calling an object a car rather
than a vehicle.
Refining Concepts
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Prototypes – is an example of a concept that closely
matches the defining characteristics of a concept.
Ex., An apple is a prototype of a _____________.
Positive instance – Is when an object fits a particular
concept, e.g., a Pit Bull is a positive instance of dog.
Negative instance – Is when an object that does not
fit a particular concept, e.g., a Blue Jay is a negative
instance of dog but a positive instance of bird.
Problem Solving
and Decision Making
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Problem solving *is a cognitive process in which we employ mental
strategies to solve problems. It occurs when a ______________
must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
METHODS PEOPLE USE TO SOLVE PROBLEMS:
Trial and Error Solutions – is when one possible solution after
another is tried until a successful one is found.
______________________ is a step-by-step set of rules that will
always lead to a correct solution for solving a problem.
What’s the algorithm for getting an “A” in this class?
______________________ is a rule of thumb for solving problems
or making judgments or decisions. Heuristics do not guarantee a
solution, but they may help you arrive at one more quickly.
Backward-working heuristic, we start with a possible solution and
then work backward to see if the data support the solution.
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Representative heuristic – Any object that shares
characteristics with the members of a particular category
is also a member of that category. Ex. Are all dark skin
people from Africa?
Means-end analysis(heuristic) is when you evaluate the
current situation and compare it to the end result you
want to achieve. You then develop a step-by-step
procedure to reduce the distance between the two.
Subgoals heuristic involves breaking the problem down
into smaller, more manageable problems.
Analogies in solving a problem is using a strategy based
on using similarities between the properties of two things
or applying solutions to past problems to the problem at
hand.
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Incubation Periods is a respite from active
problem-solving efforts, which may facilitate
a solution. It is assumed that the passage of
time helps the person develop a fresh
perspective on the problem, which may lead
to a sudden realization of the solution.
Mental Roadblocks/Impediments to
Problem Solving- What are they?
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Three of the most common barriers to successful problem
solving are: 1) functional fixedness, 2)mental sets, and
3)confirmation bias.
Functional fixedness – *Is the inability to see how familiar
objects can be used in new ways. A block to problem solving
that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their
typical functions.
Mental set – Is the tendency to rely on strategies that worked in
similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to
the present situation, e.g., The Nine-Dot Problem.
Confirmation bias – Is the tendency to search for evidence that
fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary.
Impediments in Decision Making
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Decision Making is a form of problem solving in
which you must select a course of action from
among the available ______________.
Researchers say that underlying biases in thinking
often hamper our ability to make rational choices.
An example is the confirmation bias which is the
tendency to stick to an initial hypothesis even in the
face of strong evidence that is inconsistent with it.
The confirmation bias leads us to place greater
weight on information confirming our prior beliefs
and expectations than on contradictory evidence.
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Representativeness heuristic is when you assume
that a given sample is representative of a larger
population.
Availability heuristic is the tendency to base
decisions on information that readily comes to mind.
Example: You avoid roller coaster, because a very
close friend dies while riding on one.
Framing is the tendency for decisions to be
influenced by how potential outcomes are
phrased/framed.
Creativity
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*Creativity is thinking in ways that lead to original,
practical, and meaningful solutions to problems or
that generate new ideas. Is thinking in new ways.
Divergent thinking is a type of thinking in which the
person starts from one point and comes up with
many different ideas or possibilities based on that
point.
*Convergent thinking is the attempt to narrow down
a range of alternatives to converge on the one
correct answer to a problem.
Intelligence
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*Intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment. It is the
global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with their environment.
Theories of Intelligence:
The British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945)
reasoned that intelligence is made up of two different abilities.
The ability to reason and solve problems was labeled g factor
for general intelligence, where as task-specific abilities in
certain areas such as business are labeled s factor for specific
intelligence. Therefore, Spearman believed that a person’s
performance on any given test is a function of both “g” and “s”.
Multiple Intelligences
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Psychologist Howard Gardner rejected the view
that there is a single entity called “intelligence”.
He believed there exist different types of
intelligence, called multiple intelligences, that
vary from person to person. Gardner identifies
nine different intelligences: 1) Verbal/linguistic,
2)Musical, 3)Logical/mathematical,
4) Visual/spatial, 5) bodily-kinesthetic
(movement), 6)Interpersonal, 7) intrapersonal,
8) Naturalist, and 9) Existentialist.
Multiple Intelligences
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Psychologist Robert Sternberg emphasizes how we bring
together different aspects of our intelligence to meet the
demands we face in our daily lives. Sternberg proposes a
triarchic theory of intelligence which holds that intelligence has
three aspects: Analytic/theoretical; creative/productive, and
practical. Sternberg’s analytical intelligence refers to the ability
to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for
problem solving. This type of intelligence is measured by
traditional intelligence tests. Creative intelligence is the ability to
deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new
ways of solving problems. Practical intelligence is the ability to
apply what we know to everyday life and become successful.
It is acting upon your common sense.
Measuring Intelligence
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Human intelligence consists of multiple abilities.
And, the cultural contexts in which intelligent
behavior occurs should be considered. Because
the abilities a society values determines how it
defines and measures intelligence. Our society
places a high value on verbal, mathematical,
and spatial skills, so it is not surprising that
conventional IQ tests measure these abilities
and little else.
Measuring Intelligence
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Binet’s Mental Ability Test – measured a child’s mental age, or
the average age at which a child could successfully answer a
particular level of questions.
Stanford-Binet and IQ – Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
calculated intelligence by subtracting the child’s mental age
from his or her chronological (actual) age. Children whose
mental ages sufficiently lagged behind their chronological ages
were considered in need of special education. In 1912, a
German psychologist, William Stern, suggested a different way
of computing intelligence, which Binet and Simon adopted.
Stern divided mental age by chronological age, yielding a
“mental quotient.” It soon was labeled the intelligence
quotient (IQ). A quotient is a number that results from dividing
one number by another.
Measuring Intelligence
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The Wechsler Tests – Developed by David
Wechsler, 1981, the WAIS-R was specifically
designed for adults as an intelligence test. This
test not only provides an overall score of
intelligence it provides a verbal and performance
scores. The verbal scale measures vocabulary,
comprehension, and general knowledge,
whereas the performance component scale tests
assess intellectual skills without requiring a
verbal response, see Table 7.5 p. 281.
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Standardization is the process of establishing norms
for a test by administering the test to large numbers
of people who constitute a standardization sample.
Norms are the standards used to compare an
individual’s performance on a test with the
performance of others.
Reliability is the stability of test scores over time.
Validity refers to the degree to which a test
measures what it purports to measure.
IQ Tests and Cultural Bias
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Most IQ tests will reflect in language, dialect,
and content, the culture of the person or persons
who designed the test making that test culturally
bias to persons raised outside of that culture.
*Hand out the Dove Counterbalance General
Intelligence Test.
The one thing that IQ tests do well is predict
academic success for those who score at the
higher or lower ends of the normal curve, e.g.,
SAT
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Mental retardation is a generalized deficit or impairment
in intellectual and social skills. Three conditions must
exist before a person is diagnosed with mental
retardation: 1) The IQ is 70 or below, 2) they have very
poor adaptive/social skills and 3) the onset of these
problems occurred before they were 18 y.o.
The preferred term is ___________________________
meaning that their behavioral and cognitive skills exist at
an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others
who are the same chronological age.
Diagnosis of Being
Developmentally Delayed
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The diagnosis of being developmentally delayed should
not rest exclusively upon IQ test scores but should also
include the strengths and weaknesses of the person in
four areas: 1)Intellectual and adaptive behavior skills ability to use language, reading and writing; hygiene
skills; 2) Psychological and emotional considerations their emotional maturity; 3) Physical and health
considerations - If retardation is the result of physical
conditions such as severe malnourishment, intervention
may be possible yielding a higher assessment of their
functioning; and 4) Environmental considerations Exposure to unhealthy living conditions maybe can be
corrected with the proper intervention.
Causes of being Developmentally
Delayed.
The three most common biological causes of developmental delay are:
1)Down syndrome – Is a chromosomal disorder that results in mental
retardation and physical abnormalities. It occurs in about one in every
seven hundred live births when three chromosomes are present on the
twenty-first pair of chromosomes instead of the normal two.
2) Fetal alcohol syndrome – resulting in a flattened nose, an
underdeveloped upper jaw, and widely spaced eyes; and
3) Fragile X syndrome – Is caused by a change (mutation) in a gene on
the X chromosome. Genes contain codes, or recipes, for proteins.
Proteins are very important biological components (parts) in all forms
of life. The gene on the X chromosome that causes FXS is called the
Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. The FMR1 gene makes
a protein that is needed for normal brain development. In FXS, the
protein is not made.
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Gifted – Those persons that score in the 2%
of the population falling on the upper end of
the normal curve and typically possessing an
IQ of 130 of above.
Emotional Intelligence – Is having the
awareness of and ability to manage one’s
own emotions as well as the ability to be selfmotivated, able to feel what others feel and
to be socially skilled.
Nature vs Nurture Controversy
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Is it nature (heredity or genes) or nurture (environment)?
Language is a system of communication composed
of symbols (words, hand signs, etc.) that are
arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to
form meaningful expressions.
Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a
language.
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a
language.
Syntax refers to the rules of grammar that determine how
words are ordered within sentences or phrases to form
meaningful expressions.
Culture and Language
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis is the proposition
that the language we use determines how we
think and how we perceive the world (Whorfian
hypothesis). Now researchers are saying that
the culture in which we are raised, and the
language we use, are important influences on
how we think and how we perceive the world.
Cognitive universalism – Is a theory that
concepts are universal and influence the
development of language.
Is Language Unique to Humans?
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The question of whether apes can use language
depends on how broadly we define language. If our
definition hinges on the ability to communicate
through the use of symbols, then we can say that
apes can indeed use language. However, if our
definition hinges on the use of complex syntax and
grammatical structures, then the ability to use
language may be unique to humans. According to
Noam Chomsky, trying to teach animals to use
language is as irrational as trying to teach people to
flap their arms and fly .
Overview of Theories of Intelligence
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1) It is clear that human intelligence consists
of multiple abilities, and maybe multiple
intelligences. 2) The cultural context in which
intelligent behavior occurs needs to be
considered, and 3) the abilities a society
values determine how it defines and
measures intelligence. Our society places a
high value on verbal, mathematical, and
spatial skills.
Cognitive reserve
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Cognitive reserve is the ability of the brain to
build and maintain new neurons and the
connections between them.
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THE END
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