Teaching speaking in a
second language
Anne Burns and David A. Hill
Part one
Introduction
Recently , teaching speaking has assumed new importance , as educational
policymakers internationally have placed greater focus on spoken language
skills . Several factors motivate this development . The growth of English as
a global language has highlighted of learners emerging from formal
learning with the ability to interact effectively with other English users (not
native speakers) , or to communicate orally or to international opportunities
or cross-curriculum or for employment purposes as a lingua franca which
caused teaching speaking effectively .
What we know about speaking
Quite a lot is now known about the nature of speaking . In broad terms ,
this knowledge can be described as process-oriented and product oriented
.
Speaking as process
A cognitive process
Speaking is a mental process combining various cognitive skills, virtually
simultaneously , and drawing on working memory of words and concepts ,
while self-monitoring . When preparing speaking activities , teachers need
to be aware of three important cognitive process .
1- Conceptualization : speakers need the capacity (ability) to select
content and ideas for oral production , drawing on sensory imaging
and inner speech . In short , learners need sufficient content and
background knowledge to be able to say things .
2-Formulation : learners must know lexicogrammatical structure.
They must have enough linguistic knowledge to express intended
meaning .
3-Articulation : Articulation is a physical process involving appropriate
use of mouth , teeth and tongue , its closely linked to memory and to
conceptualization and formulation .
An affective process
Cognitive processing demands can create nervousness or embarrassment
for learners . Its important that teachers become aware of the pressures
of speaking and develop strategies to minimize anxiety .
there are several emotional or psychological factors which may cause
learner reluctant to speech including :
1- spontaneous (immediate) speaking involves little time to prepare .
2- Any speaking situation can produce feeling of tension and anxiety .
3- personality traits can affect willingness to speech . Some people are
shy or anxious than others.
4- language anxiety can raise from personal or social pressure that
comes from fear of mockery or less of face.
5- there maybe gender differences in willingness to speak. According to
zhang , male learners can experience greater anxiety when they have to
speak English.
Speaking as product
Pronunciation
A foundational aspect of speaking a language is being able to produce
the sound patterns instrumental in contributing to meaning and
intelligibility .In stress-timed language like English , its important for
teachers focus on pronunciation instruction at both segmental(single
vowel and consonant sounds or their combinations) and suprasegmental
levels , especially for beginners .
Suprasegmental elements highlight ‘what knowledge speakers think
they share about word , and about each other’s experiences , attitudes
and emotions’ 9brazilil et al., 1980,p.15). There is growing evidence
that suprasegmental patterns(intonation) are more important in
conveying meaning.
More recently Jenkins (2000)proposed , controversially , that
pronunciation teaching should move away from NS (native speaker)
models and focus on more on what non-native speakers(NNS) of
English as a lingua franca (EFL) need for comprehensibility .
Drawing on analysis of analysis of learner English , she suggests a
syllabus based on a ‘pronunciation core’ of sounds problematic for
learners .Effective speaking classes should provide activities to help
learners work on sound , stress and intonation relate to their needs.
Language system
Spoken discourse analysis has resulted in substantial insight into the
nature of spoken language and its grammatical features. One major
insight is that past tendencies to base the teaching of speaking on
written language models is no longer productive .
Spoken language is highly dynamic , interactive and processed in real
time . Written language in contrast , can be planned and redrafted
without a physical recipient . Consequently , spoken grammatical
features differ notably from written forms.
Spoken language
1-Lower number of content words/
higher number of grammatical words.
2-Clauses linked by conjunction(and ,
but , so)
3_High use of personal pronouns (I ,
you ,we)
4-Inexplicitreferences into external
context(these, it , there)
5-Relationship aspects emphasized
(interpersonal foregrounded)
6-Relies more on verbs to carry
meaning (verbal process)
Written language
1-Higher number of content words/
lower number of grammatical words.
2- Clauses linked by subordination (who
, which)
3-Low use of personal pronouns.
4-Explicit references within the context
(in the corner , the desk)
5-Content aspects emphasized
(information foreground)
6- Relies more on nouns to carry
meaning (nominalization)
There are some other features which just come in spoken language
Adjacency and Ellipsis.
Genres of speaking
Humans are socially oriented individuals and many daily interactions
involve ‘story-telling’ genres to exchange personal experiences
feelings and perceptions . Thornbury and Slade identify four major
storytelling genres :
1-Narrative (facing/resolving problematic experiences)
2-Anecdote (experiencing remarkable events)
3-Exemplum (highlighting moral points)
4- Experiencing sequences of events)
What we think we know about teaching speaking
How speaking process ,skills and products can most effectively be transposed into
pedagogical practice three major language learning theories can be said to have
motivated speaking instruction :
1-Behaviourist
2-cognitivst
3-sociocultural
Teaching speaking at this time relied on behaviourist notions of ‘habit
formation’_good language ‘habits’ were gained by practicing the same structures
repeatedly(drill). An extension of the audiolingual approach which was widely
advocated is the PPP sequence. This method is criticized including :
Its fixed sequence of learning.
Teacher- centredness .
Limited focus on communication.
Controlled introduction of language structures.
-A modal drawing on cognitive theory is Harmer’s Engage ,study,
activate. The Engage phase involves arousing learners’ interests ,
curiosity and emotions towards the topic to attract attention and
motivate them. Finally, activate focuses on learners using the language
communicatively, drawing on whatever knowledge and skills they have.
-Sociocultural learning models embed learning in social and cultural
interaction. Socioculturally motivated models include genre , discourse
and text-based approaches.
currently, these various learning models underpin (support) most
teaching approaches . Despite differences in orientation , there seem to
be consensus on what key phases constitute effective speaking
instruction :
-Awareness where learners must come into contact with new knowledge.
-Appropriation, where new knowledge becomes incorporated into
existing knowledge .
-And autonomy where skills become automated and learners move
towards greater independence.
What we need to find out about teaching speaking
Although substantial developments have occurred in our knowledge of
where to derive models for speaking and speaking instruction , much
remains for further investigation. We highlight two key areas here:
Which grammar?
Analysis of large corpora of spoken text has contributed extensively to insights into how
naturalistic spoken language is realized grammatically. What is very clear is that
spoken language is not simply an oral version of written language , even though it is
equally clear that they overlap in complex and highly interrelated ways. Since the
written grammar use for speaking instruction there is a disservice to continue the
learners to language forms that will not advance naturalistic speaking development.
McCarthy and Cater note that one difficulty in developing grammars of speaking is
determine the core units .Unlike in writing where the sentence is the basic unit ,
speaking is more problematic , as turns often consists of phrases or incomplete clauses .
Given that speaking involves joint interaction deciding on a core unit becomes even
more chalenging .
Given such challenges , it could be some time before spoken language is codified
(arranged principles) for language teaching purposes to anywhere near the same
extent as written language.
Which speaker norms?
The NS as the target is increasingly under criticism, with calls being
made for perspectives that recognize global variety and diversity.In
relation to NS norms , various questions can be raised . Does NS mean
American or British- what about Australian , Canadian or South Africa
? Moreover , for each of these varieties , which NS dialect or
pronunciation should be privileged? Are NSs ‘incorrect’ if their
phonological, grammatical and lexical variation do not conform to a
particular standard? Can competent speakers in non-English-speaking
regions be models for speaking instruction?
These questions are highly contentious (controversial) and can be
researched in relation to teaching speaking.
Part two
teaching speaking :current textbook practice
Introduction
In order to examine what is going on in relation to the teaching of
speaking in contemporary textbooks , we taking three international
coursebooks which span (included) the first decades of the twenty first
century :
1- Inside Out ( Macmillian2000)
2- face2face (CUP,2006)
3-Outcomes (Heinle,2010)
The main areas of focus are:
1-How far do speaking activities reflect the changing nature of English as a global
language and the fact that most interaction in English in the word today are not between
NS ?
2- How much concern is shown for the cognitive and affective elements which
impinge(have a harmful effect) upon speaking ?
How is the learning of pronunciation at segmental and suprasegmental levels
catered for
How much attention is paid to the true nature of spoken English , as opposed
to basing practice on written models ?
Does a behaviorist , cognitivist or sociocultural theory of language learning
dominate?
Brave new words : our theory and methodology
Inside out teacher’s book
The authors seem to be very aware of the nature of spoken English ,
starting on the first page that ‘in most situations you move back and forth
fairly freely between (speaking and listening).
As a result of , students find much of what happens In a nature
conversation difficult to deal with’. Later under the heading of
Personalized speaking tasks , they say that ‘the main purpose is to develop
fluency …. Most of them encourage students to talk about things that
matter to them , rather than playing roles or exchanging information.
The authors would appear to have understood the nature of natural
speech , and to want to offer activities which will help learners to work
toward it .
There seems to be some attention to the importance of global English , with
the varieties of native speaker accents included in the student’s book , and
also some NNS ,which is a positive step . There is no meaning of
pronunciation in this introduction.
face2face teacher’s book
In their general overview , the author tell us that ‘there are numerous
opportunities for communicative , personalized speaking practice … (with)
… lessons in each unit (that) focus on the functional and situational
language students need for day-to-day life’ later , under the speaking
headline ,there are numerous speaking opportunities.
Under the heading of pronunciation, they ensure us that ‘pronunciation is
integrated throughout…. with … drills which focus on sentence stress,
weak forms, intonation and other phonological features’
As with Inside Out , the authors of face2face seem to favoure the
preparation-before-risk taking approach to speaking , which does not match
with real world experiences. There seems to be some overt recognition of the
importance of pronunciation up front , focusing on a range of important
features . Like the Inside Out authors , they also mention the importance of
‘personalization’ in speaking.
Outcomes teacher’s book
Under a heading called Developing conversation , we are told that ‘the
sections teach typical questions, responses and patterns common to
conversation. An explanation clarifies the focus while exercises give
controlled practice’. This is followed by conversation practice where a task
lets students practice social and practical conversations based on their own
experience or through role-play’.
Under the heading vocabulary the authors say that , ‘vocabulary is carefully
chosen to enable students to talk about the topic in the context of English as
a lingua franca’. Later they say that, ‘we all know from experience and
research that people learn a new language when they are struggling to
express something and the ‘correct’ or better word is given . This is also why
we have lots of speaking activities . They are not just opportunities for
students to practice what they know . they are chances for them to try and
say something new , stretch themselves and make mistakes… .
What actually goal on in the student’s book?
How far do speaking activities reflect the changing nature of
English as a global language , and the fact that most interaction in
English in the world today are not between two NS
Inside out
There is a cast of international people to talk about . Some dialogue
include different NS of English, and occasionally a NNS. In general it is
very wide –British /American .
Face2face
There seems to be little attempt at any global focus . There are a few nonwhite, non-British /American can type characters , but their impact is
minimal and their purpose is not for exploration of communication
between different speakers of English . little that happens in the book
seems to take place outside Britain and most of the interaction is
between white NS.
Outcomes
There are rather more non-white-British/American characters evident is
photos , and situation are set elsewhere to a grater extent in this book.
However , conversation do not really reflect any global contexts.
How much concern is shown for the cognitive and affective
elements which imping(have a harmful effect)upon speaking?
Inside out
There is one overt mention of how to deal with a topic where negative
affective issues might be encountered, e.g. if dating is too sensitive a
theme in your student’s culture to allow them to discuss it comfortably.
In general, the authors seem to imagine that the progressive build-up to
speaking activities will be sufficient to allay any anxiety, nervousness,
shyness, etc. there is little opportunity for students to select what they
want to say or talk about.
Face2face
There is nothing overt here to help students, either cognitively or
effectively, unless one counts the inexorable (unstopped) build-up of
reading, writing, listening and vocabulary exercises through each unit.
Outcomes
The cognitive side is catering for as far as it is in the other two courses,
but there is no real overt help with the affective issues that might affect
students. Students are then asked to use certain adjectives encountered in
phrase. There are no suggestions in the teacher’s book about helping
students to talk about these things.
How is the learning of pronunciation at segmental and
suprasegmental levels catered for?
Inside out
There is a little work on individual sounds (e.g. minimal pairs), word stress in
sentences, stress timing, short vowel sounds, pure vowel sounds. Some of
these exercises involve knowing phonetic symbols. It is all segmental.
face2face
Topics such as strong and weak forms are deal with from time to time, the
difference between British and American accents is also deal with once.
Also in many of the dialogue recording scripts in the back of the Student’s
book , weak form are written phonetically and interword connectivity is
shown. This is a welcome and unusual feature. But does simply drawing
learners’ attention to such features actually facilitate acquisition of the
features?
Outcomes
There is regular, if limited, pronunciation work on topics such as:
sentence stress and intonation, connected speech, vowel sounds,
consonant sounds, question tag, diphthong. The stress and intonation
theme shows up several times for different kinds of utterances. It is
hardly systematic, though it does have a mixture of segmental and
suprasegmental work.
How much attention is paid to the true nature of spoken
English, as opposed to basing practice on written models?
Inside out
the modal dialogues still red like written English. There are no overlaps,
false starts, repeats, etc., although there is usually a lot of colloquial and
informal English and some ellipsis.
face2face
The modal dialogues are all very similar to those in Inside out-nice and
clear, separated speech, some colloquialisms and ellipsis.
Outcomes
There is a continual insistence on recent colloquial English in this book.
The authors go out of their way to introduce it in sections called Native
Speak English ( e.g. ‘I’m really into jazz’; ‘How come?’; ‘you don’t want
to get ripped off’).
Elsewhere, the sequence is similar to Inside Out and face2face, where a
series of activities on vocabulary, listening and pronunciation leads into a
Developing Conversations section with examples of the comparative, and
then a Conversation Practice section to use the language of the earlier
parts of the unit. The model dialogues follow the pattern of the other two
courses.
Does a behaviourist, cognitivist or sociocultural theory of
language
learning
dominate?
Inside out
The typical process for getting to a speaking activity is:
i. Read a text about a topic.
ii. Do an activity which examines the language used in the text
(reading/written exercise).
iii. Talk to your partner about the same topic related to you.
There is no specific help for the ‘partner’ how are they supposed to
interact? Just be a passive listener?
face2face
The process for moving to a speaking activity is very similar to that
Inside Out.
Outcomes
Because of the initial speaking activities n many units, this coursebook
offers students an opportunity to sink or swim, which is lacking in the
behaviorist model-based process of the other two. They end up being less
materials- and teacher-led and get an opportunity to stand on their own
two feet, being involved in an activity which invites them to use the
language resources they have, which is what often happens in real-life
interactions.
Conclusion
What is disappointing is that coursebooks have not really develop very
much in the past decades, like these three books which stuck in the
behaviorist PPP way of working. There is the scant attention paid to
pronunciation in all three books. Another things are lack of support for
the ‘partner’ in all of the speaking activities or lack of global approach to
the dialogue and interactions.
Publishers should present realistic models of interaction and provide
activities which help them to cope with real dialogue to use their English,
such an approach would require the following sequence of events:
•Initially, and at regular intervals throughout the course, in order for
students to become familiar with how people construct meaning in
dialogues (interruption, pauses, etc.)
•The discussion of familiar topics in the mother tongue in groups of
three or four
•The presentation of short authentic dialogues in the target language.
The transcript is then discussed and analysed at a metalinguistic level,
and student find out key things to help them speak: its OK to pause,
hesitate repeat, etc.
•They are then presented with the vocabulary, and structures needed to
talk about the same topic as the dialogue they have been analysing.
•Finally they are put into pairs or small groups with tasks to carry out
using the new language. Their production is recorded for later
analysis.