Final Exam Review
EXAM 1
EXAM 2
EXAM 3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Language &
Development
• Cognitive & Social
Development
• Attitudes
• Conformity &
Obedience
• Aggression
Methodology
Sleeping
Dreaming
Brain & neurons
Motivation
Learning
Perception
Attention
Memory
Problem Solving
AFTER EXAM 3
• Abnormality and Therapy
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
Methodology
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
METHODS
• Observation vs. Experimentation
– Experimental control
– Hypotheses
– Independent and Dependent variables
– Operational definition
– Sample and population
– Random sampling
– Case studies
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
METHODS
• The Power of Experiments
– Control condition
– Matched groups
• Random assignment, within-subject comparison
– External validity
• Demand characteristics
• Double Blind Study
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
METHODS
• Measurement
– Central tendency
• mean, median, mode
– Variability
• Variance, standard deviation
– Correlation and significance level
• Correlation coefficients (-1 to 1)
– Normal distributions
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Sleeping & Dreaming
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Theories FOR Necessity of Sleep
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Motivation/Crummy feeling
Energy conservation
Restorative
Memory consolidation
Hallucination argument
REM recovery
Health involvement
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Arguments Against Necessity of
Sleep
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Deprivation/human & animal
Exceptional sleepers
Dement study
Limited REM recovery
Programmatic reduction
Cats in a puddle
Adaptive theory
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Dreaming
• Freud psychoanalytic theory: Id’s opportunity to
express repressed desires, mental conflict
– Id, ego, superego
• Latent, manifest, remembered dreams
– Symbolism, forgetting
• Hall/Cartwright: dream series
• Hobson: Activation-Synthesis hypothesis
• Wilson: rat maze learning, consolidation of
memories
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Brain & Neurons
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
The Brain
•
•
•
•
Mechanist view of behavior
Kinesis, taxis, reflex
The Neuron and Action Potential
Cephalization
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Braightenberg’s Vehicles
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
The Brain: Organizing Principles
• Localization of Function
– Phineas Gage
– Wernike’s aphasia and Broca’s Aphasia
• Topographic Projection
• All or none law
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
Motivation
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Maslow’s Hierarchy
• We need to satisfy lower level needs before
progressing
• Exhibits partial priority ordering
• Arguable
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Basic Model of Motivation
• Drive: To take care of biological self
• Dual Output Regulation (Canon and Bernard)
– A variable environment vs. constant environment
– Where did our ancestors come from?
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Negative Feedback Loop
• Input, regulator, set point, output
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Autonomous Nervous System
• Sympathetic:
– Arousal
– Emergency response
• Parasympathetic:
– Long term energy storage
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
The Psychological and Physiological
Aspects
• Two consequences:
• H for HOMEOSTASIS and HYPOTHALAMUS
• Know Examples!
– Thirst
– Cold
– Hunger
• Next Slide
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
Hunger
• Two parts of the Hypothalamus:
– Lateral – Senses hunger
– Ventromedial – Senses fullness
• Fat cell Hypothesis
– Fat cells established during infancy
– Releases:
• Leptin – to indicate fullness
• NPY – to indicate hunger/appetite
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Hunger (cont.)
• Glucose/Glycogen
– Glucose  Glycogen – for storage when full
– Glycogen  Glucose – for fuel when hungry
• Some animals have “fuel tank indicators”
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Hunger (still cont.)
• Externality Hypothesis (Schacter)
– Some people are more sensitive to bodily cues
• Obese people are less sensitive than non-obese
• Liquid diet exp., Yom Kipper fasting study
• Restrained vs. Nonrestrained eaters
– Restrained will intake much more upon breaking
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Yerkes Dodson Law
• There is this “best” level of arousal for
performance (too low/high reduces it)
– High arousal levels = higher performance if…
• The task becomes easier
• You are more experienced
• Presence of observers
– Think roaches
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Need for Achievement
• Another higher level motivation
• TAT projective tests
– People vary their levels of motivation to complete
a task
– Motive is relative to
the goals they set
themselves
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
Emotions
• James-Lange Theory
– Relation between the stimulating event, bodily
arousal, and perceived emotion
• “All emotion is derived from the presence of a stimulus,
which evokes a physiological response”
• Wikepedia <3
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Emotions (cont.)
• Schacter Singer Experiment
• Model of emotional experience based on cognitive
labels in response to physiological excitation
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
Learning
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
LEARNING
• Pavlov's classical conditioning
• Thorndike's law of effect and Skinner's operant
conditioning
• Evaluation of behaviorism
• Other perspectives
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
classical conditioning
Extinction
LTP
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
operant conditioning
• Reinforcement and punishment
• Schedules --- 4 types
LEARNING
METHODOLOGY
SLEEPING & DREAMING
BRAIN & NEURONS
MOTIVATION
Other learning perspectives
• E.g. Observational learning --- bobo doll
experiment
• “Smart” learning
The Power Law of Practice
RT = aP-b + c
LEARNING
Final Exam Review
EXAM 1
EXAM 2
EXAM 3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Language &
Development
• Cognitive & Social
Development
• Attitudes
• Conformity &
Obedience
• Aggression
Methodology
Sleeping
Dreaming
Brain & neurons
Motivation
Learning
Perception
Attention
Memory
Problem Solving
AFTER EXAM 3
• Abnormality and Therapy
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Perception
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Perception: Audition
• 20-20,000 Hz = normal range
• Most speech sounds occur in central range (most
sensitive)
• Transduction from physical signal  neural signal
occurs at basilar membrane
• Frequency (Volley) theory: frequency of the AP tells
the actual frequency in the real world (problem: AP can
only fire ~ 1000 times/sec.)
• Place theory: location of the depolarizing hair cells on
the basilar membrane tells the frequency of the sound
in the real world
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Vision
• Duplex theory of vision: rods vs. cones in retina
• Very wide intensity range
• Lateral inhibition (originally studied with Limulus, the
horseshoe crab)
• Feature detectors (bottom up): frog and cat examples
• Simple cortical cells respond to bars of light (or darkness)
surrounded by darkness (or light) in a particular
orientation
• They seem to be made up of a line of circularly oriented
retinal ganglion cells connecting to a brain cell
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Top Down vs. Bottom Up Processing
• Top down using information that you
already know and having it help you interpret
new information…just like finishing someone
else's sentences…coming at with assumptions
• Bottom upstart with what you actually
see…take in sensory information and then
make perceptions
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Attention
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Attention as a Bottleneck
Early Selection
Late Selection
• Cocktail Party Effect
• Filter Theory (in class demo,
gorilla movie)
• Attenuation Theory* (in
class demo)
• Late Selection Theory
(pennies at the bank)
Spotlight Theory of Attention
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Early Selection vs. Late Selection
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Memory
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Ebbinghaus
• Recall
• Recognition
• Savings
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Serial Position Effect
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Sperling and Sensory Memory
•
•
•
•
Whole Vs. Partial Report
Rapid Decay
Backward Mask
Iconic Memory
– Large Capacity
– Short Duration
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Studies to Rememer
• Peterson & Peterson
– Decay
• Waugh & Norman
– Interference
• Sternberg
– Memory Scanning
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
Baddeley: Model of Working
Memory
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
H.M.
• Retrograde amnesia vs anterograde
• Declarative (semantic + episodic) vs
procedural distinction in memory type
• How does this occur? –hippocampus and
overlying cortical damage
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Contextual Basis of Learning
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Spatial Memory
• Island Experiment
• Mental Rotation
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
Problem Solving
PROBLEM SOLVING
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving
• Definition: get from A to B; way of doing this
not obvious
– Solve in “problem space” – one’s mental
representation of the problem, can vary
• Well-defined vs. ill-defined
• Knowledge-rich vs. knowledge-lean
• Insight vs. non-insight problem
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving Characteristics
• Zeigarnik Effect (1927)
– Remember failed problems best
• Moss (Z Effect modification)
- “Open goal” effect
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving Characteristics
• New problems not really new – “sets”
– (e.g., Luchins water jug)
• Duncker’s Candle – “functional fixedness”
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving Characteristics
• Newell & Simon – General Theory of Problem
Solving
– Wrote programs that simulated how people do task
– Yielded predictive theories of task performance
– Big hit to behaviorist theory
– Caveat: better for well-defined problems
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving Operators
• Algorithm – “strong” method
• Heuristic – “weak” method
– Hill climbing
• detour problem
– Fractionation/sub-goaling (210 paths)
– Working backwards (lily)
– Means-end analysis
• Hill climbing + sub-goaling to proceed
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving Characteristics
• Inc. problem space size  Inc. difficulty
• Isomorph matters!
– Representation (changes in problem space)
• Difficulty
• Memory constraints
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
MEMORY
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-Solving: Other
• Subconscious solving (Fox/Hound; Chinese Ring)
• Expertise
– 10 years
– Experts: bigger chunks, deliberate practice,
remember patterns, (better memory?)
Final Exam Review
EXAM 1
EXAM 2
EXAM 3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Language &
Development
• Cognitive & Social
Development
• Attitudes
• Conformity &
Obedience
• Aggression
Methodology
Sleeping
Dreaming
Brain & neurons
Motivation
Learning
Perception
Attention
Memory
Problem Solving
AFTER EXAM 3
• Abnormality and Therapy
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
Language
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Animal Language
• Only have a fixed set of signals that render
them incapable of
– Accommodating change
– Progressive communication to create culture
• White-tailed Deer:
– Raises tails when sensing danger
• Bees (Von Frisch):
– Dance indicates location of pollen in respect to
the sun
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Human Language
• What makes us unique?
• Five Distinguishing Features of Language
– Symbolism
– Displacement
– Arbitrariness
– Discreteness
– Productivity/Creativity
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Rules of Language
• Language can be described as a complex
hierarchy of rules
– Level 1  Phonology
– Level 2  Semantics
– Level 3  Syntax
– Level 4  Pragmatics
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Rules of Language (Phonology)
• Phonemes
– Basic unit of sound
– English  40 out of 200
• Distinctive Features
– Voice onset time
• Categorical Perception
– We categorize similar sounds in categories
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Rules of Language (Semantics)
• Morpheme
– Basic unit of meaning
– Example: “Boy” vs. “Boys”
• Prototype Theory
– Certain features of a category have equal status 
examples with most features become prototype of
category
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Rules of Language (Syntax)
• The ordering of words into phrases and
sentences
• Ambiguity
• Flexibility
– Gives language ability to make an infinite amount
of assertions!
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Rules of Language (Pragmatics)
• Knowledge of intentions
• Moar ambiguity
• Don’t interpret literally, but rather, rely on
expectations of listener
– Ex. “Could you pass the salt?”
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Language Development
• Critical Period
– Learning acquisition must initiate during this
period
• Ducklings
• Cats
• Chaffinches
– What happens to learning after the critical
period?
• Wild Child
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Child Language Development
• Babbling Phase (Middle of 1st year)
– Progression of babbling = back to front
– Progression of speaking = front to back
• One word sentences (Early/Mid of 2nd year)
– Homophrase
• Simple/Regular Two-word Syntax (After 2nd year)
– Reliant on content while forgoing functional words
• Exponential Learning (In the next 2-3 years)
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
Innateness of Language
• Wernicke’s and Broca’s Aphasia
• Critical Period
• Complexity
– Poverty of Stimulus
• Positive/Negative Evidence
• Universal Language
– Noam Chomsky
• Not Copying/Reinforcement
– Overgeneralization
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Cognitive & Social Development
79
Fig. 5-3, p. 123
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Physical and Brain Development
• At birth, the human brain weighs
approximately 350 grams.
• By the first year. the brain weighs
approximately 1000 grams.
• The adult brain weighs 1200-1400 grams.
80
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Physical and Brain Development
81
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Physical and Brain Development
• From birth:
– Reflexes:
• Grasping
• Rooting
• Foot flexing
– Sensory
• Discriminate high and low sounds, vowels, mother’s
voice
• Very near-sighted, but can discriminate brightness and
color and track moving objects
82
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Important Concepts Within Piaget’s
Model
• Schemes: Mental model of the world that we
use to represent, organize, and interpret our
experiences.
• Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into
an existing scheme.
• Accommodation: Changing or modifying a
scheme in order to incorporate a new
experience.
83
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Four Major Stages of Cognitive
Development
1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
– Object permanence or A not B
2. Preoperational (2-7 years)
– Conservation, three mountains task
3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
4. Formal Operational (12+ years)
84
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Strengths of Piaget’s theory
• Good “feel” for what children’s
thinking is like
• Covers broad age span
• Covers broad spectrum of developments
in children’s thinking
• Interplay of content & mechanism
85
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Weaknesses of Piaget’s theory
• Methods
• Underestimates competence – children
succeed earlier than predicted
• didn't adequately consider the role of
culture and experience in children’s
undertaking of his tasks
• Sometimes, no discrete stages development occurs somewhat
gradually or incrementally
86
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Information-Processing Theories
• Thinking = information processing
– Representation of information
– Processes - applied to representations
– Constraints - memory limits constrain representation and
processing
• Cognitive development = advances in their ability
to process and respond to the information
they received through their senses
• Emphasizes a continuous pattern of
development (different from Piaget’s stages)
87
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Memory representations & capacity
• Leg-string Infants
remembered that
kicking made mobile
move after 2
months
•Working memory span increases with age
88
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Rehearsal as information processing
• Increase in rehearsal
speed leads to
increase in working
memory capacity
• Older children do
better on recall tests
because they use
rehearsal as a
memory strategy
89
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Attachment
• Infant forms a relationship with caregiver and uses them
as a secure base to explore the world
– Harlow: monkeys are comforted by soft “contact comfort”, not
feeding.
– Ainsworth: Strange situation
– Episode 1: Mother (or other familiar caregiver), Baby,
Experimenter (30 seconds)
– Episode 2: Mother, Baby (3 mins)
– Episode 3: Mother, Baby, Stranger (3 mins or less)
– Episode 4: Stranger, Baby (3 mins)
– Episode 5: Mother, Baby (3 mins)
– Episode 6: Baby Alone (3 mins or less)
– Episode 7: Stranger, Baby (3 mins or less)
– Episode 8: Mother, Baby (3 mins)
90
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Attachment Styles
• Secure - Uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration.
Upset by departure of parent but easily calmed when
they return and can continue to play.
• Resistant – Does not use parent as a secure base, often
stays close to them. Upset when they leave but not
comforted by their return.
• Avoidant – Little affect while playing. No visible stress
upon parents departure, ignores them on return. Treats
the stranger similarly to the caregiver.
• Disorganized – no clear attachment patter. Show freezing
or repetitive behavior.
91
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Moral Development: Kohlberg
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was
one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form
of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist
was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He
paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose
of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper
or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the
drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for
his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal
the drug for his wife? Why or why not
92
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
93
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
Attitudes
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
ABC’s of Attitudes!
• Affective (Prejudice)
• Behavior (Discrimination)
• Cognitive (Stereotypes)
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Characteristics of Attitudes
• We want to be consistent, which we maintain
through selective exposure, selective
interpretation, and selective memory
• When it comes to attitude change, there are
different properties that determine the
likelihood of attitude change (characteristics
of the source, characteristics of the message,
and characteristics of the recipient)
• Explicit vs. Implicit attitudes
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Techniques for Attitude Change
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reciprocity
Low-balling
Foot in the door
Door in the fact
That’s not all
Prestige
Exclusivity
Bait and switch
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
Stereotype Maintenance
•
•
•
•
Illusory Correlation
Out-group Homogeneity
In-group Bias
Fundamental Attribution Error
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Theories of Attitude Consistency
• Balance Theory (Heider)
• Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
– If a behavior and attitude are dissonant, we will
change whichever is easier to change
– Experiments:
• Aronson & Mills: justification of effort
• Ms. Keech cult & Yale experiment: inadequate external
justification
• Brehm: Consequences of a decision
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Theories of Attitude Consistency
• Self Perception Theory (Bem)
– We learn our own attitudes by observing our
behavior
– Experiments:
• Valins fake heart rate
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
Conformity
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Bystander Apathy
• More people witnessing an event causes all to
be less likely to act
– Injured experimenter
• Alone, friend, stranger, unresponsive stranger
– “Fire” experiment
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Bystander Apathy Mechanisms
• Moral diffusion of responsibility
(But those people over there…)
• Lack of clarity (WHAT DO I DO!?!?)
• Costs of intervention (cost-benefit)
• Rules for behaving (no staring)
• Inc mood, inc helping (dimes; Isen et al.)
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Conformity (Asch)
• “Perception” study (lines)
Number of Confederates
providing wrong answer
Response Given
0 (alone)
Always correct
1
Almost always correct
2
Almost always correct
3+
Usually wrong - Conformed!
• 2/3 of people conformed, around ½ the time
• (only 1/3 stuck to their guns!)
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Milgram Obedience Experiment
• Basic finding: 2/3 of people affected
• Proximity!
– Inc prox of experimenter  inc obedience
– Inc prox of “learner”  dec obedience
• Explanations
– Foot in door, diffusion of responsibility, lack of
social support, ambiguity of situation
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
Aggression
AGGRESSION
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Aggression
• 2 views:
(1) Biological source
•
evolutionary/adaptive on a continuum with our
animal ancestry (Eibesfeldt and Lorenz)
(2) Psychological source
•
rooted in humanity and something peculiar or unique
to us (Koestler)
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Aggression: biological source
• Aggression plays a useful/important role
– Allocation of resources (food and space)
• Territoriality
• Dominance Hierarchies
• Limits on Aggression
– Surrender gestures (wolves)
– Ritualized combat (rattlesnakes)
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Aggression: biological source
• Dangerous (have controls)
• Non-dangerous animals (no controls)
• Humans
– Non-dangerous  dangerous
– No protective mechanisms
LANGUAGE
COGNITIVE & SOCIAL DEV.
ATTITUDES
CONFORMITY
AGGRESSION
Aggression: psychological source
• Important human aggressions = warfare
(1) Pre history (kill out of love, not hate)
(2) Brain (higher pts don’t always control reflexive pts)
(3) Symbol use (we are symbol dependent and can
be aroused to defend in-group )
• We can portray a reality that’s not real at all
(we can make our own enemies, even when they're
not our enemies)
Final Exam Review
EXAM 1
EXAM 2
EXAM 3
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Language &
Development
• Cognitive & Social
Development
• Attitudes
• Conformity &
Obedience
• Aggression
Methodology
Sleeping
Dreaming
Brain & neurons
Motivation
Learning
Perception
Attention
Memory
Problem Solving
AFTER EXAM 3
• Abnormality and Therapy
Abnormality and Therapy
Defining Abnormal
• Medical approach
• Statistical approach
• Functional approach
• Personality (Psychopathy…..)
• Mood (Depression, Bipolar)
• Thought (Scz. Delusions, Hallucinations)
Schizophrenia
Positive symptoms:
-- Hallucinations
– delusions
– Disorganized or strange behavior & speech
Negative symptoms:
– Flat affect & other behavior
– Catatonia
– Withdrawel from others
Onset of Neuroses
•
•
•
•
•
Age
Gender
Social Class
Genetics (Schizophrenia)
Poverty/Residential Areas
Deinstitutionalization
Basic Models of Disorder
Stress: Functional Disorder
-Cognitive & Social Origins
Illness: Medical/Biological
– Brain-based (synaptic & neural
network/connectivity)
Mixed Model: VulnerabilityStress
Szasz: Radical Anti-medical Approach
Treatment
• Early Prognosis
– Mental Illness = Corruption by Evil Spirits
– Drill Holes in Skulls
• Middle Ages mental illness = disease
– Conditions of treatment were horrible
• Prefrontal Lobotomy
• Electroconvulsive Therapy
Reformed Medicine
• Dorthea Dix
– Fights for humane treatment
• Freud
– A talking solution
• Treatment involves 3 major components
– Biological
– Psychological
– Social
Types of Treatment
• Psychodynamic
– Freud: Illness due to a series of inner conflicts
– Work through conflict, idea of transference
• Humanistic
– Focus on decisions and creating meaning
– Take responsibility for life and actions
– Carl Rogers (Client-Centered Approach)
– Unconditional Positive Regard
Types of Treatment
• Behavioral
– Treatment directed at reducing or
eliminating problematic behaviors
(because behavior is all there is!)
• Approach involves replacing old habits with more
effective or adaptive behaviors
– Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, modeling
• Exposure Therapy
Types of Treatment
• Cognitive
– Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (Albert Ellis)
• People typically think that an event causes them to
behave a certain way
– Cognitive Restructuring
• Challenge a person’s unhealthy beliefs or
interpretations
– CBT
• Focus on addressing problems the patient wishes to solve
• Intimate relationship between behavior and thought (self
perception theory!)
• Often clients are assigned homework
– Practice new ways skills or thought techniques
Drug Based Intervention
• SCZ: Dopamine receptor blockers (the
better the block the more effective it is)
• Depression: ex. Norepinephrine uptake or
release+, Serotonin release+, & a host of
other neurotransmitter controls involved
• New age ECT
• Psychotropic Drugs
– Typical
– Atypical
Efficacy of Treatment
•
•
•
•
Case by case
Drugs effective
Therapy effective
Combined approach leads to the best
outcomes
Emerging Biomedical Treatments
• Repetitive TMS
– Areas of the brain stimulated
with magnetic coil for 20-30
minutes over several weeks
– Effective for medicationresistant depression
– No cognitive side effects
• Deep Brain Stimulation
– Electrodes implanted in brain
- Future: increased ability to
interface with brain sub-areas
via many pathways.