Training Principles
and Methods
Components of Fitness
Strength Training
Flexibility and Stretching
What is Training?
In it simplest definition, training is the vehicle by which the
human body is made more efficient – making the body better
able to run, jump, lift, throw, kick, etc.
Training needs vary greatly depending on both the objectives and the
physical attributes of the individual.
 preparing for competition
 improving appearance
 reducing fat or weight reduction
Physical Fitness Defined
A person can generally measure physical fitness by determining
how much energy they have for doing what is enjoyable in life.
The Center for Disease Control (Atlanta) defines fitness as
"a set of attributes that people have or achieve that relates
to their ability to perform physical activity.
The World Health Organization has defined fitness as
"the ability to perform muscular work satisfactorily".
The Canadian College of Sports Medicine has proposed that
"fitness is the ability to perform moderate to vigorous levels
activity without undue fatigue".
The Components of Fitness
The components of physical fitness fall into two groups:
Skill Related
(determine athletic ability)
Health Related
(important for general health)
• Activities such as archery, bowling and table tennis develop
mainly skill-related attributes.
• Activities such as walking, running and stair climbing are
almost entirely health-related.
• Activities such as soccer, team handball, basketball and
and hockey require high levels of both components.
The Skill-Related
Components of Fitness
Agility:
Balance
The ability to change directions quickly
The ability to maintain the body in a state of
equilibrium, with poise
Coordination:
Power:
The ability to combine different types of
movement into specific patterns
The ability to release maximum muscular force at
maximum speed
Reaction Time:
Speed:
The ability to respond quickly to a stimulus
The ability to cover a short distance quickly
The Health-Related
Components of Fitness
Body
Composition
The ratio of body fat to lean tissue
Cardiovascular
Endurance
Flexibility
Muscular
Strength
Muscular
Endurance
The ability of the heart, lung, and blood
vessels to send oxygen to the body’s tissues
during long periods of vigorous activity.
The ability to move a joint through a full
and normal range of motion without discomfort
The maximum amount of force that a muscle or
group of muscles can exert in a single effort
The ability of the muscles to do difficult tasks
over a period of time without causing fatigue
Designing Training Programs
The components of fitness can be
developed by using
the principles of
Specificity
Progression
Overload
can be achieved
through changes in
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
Training Principles
Specificity (Specific Adaptation To Imposed Demand - S.A.I.D)
In order develop a specific muscle or muscle group training must
be specific to those outcomes.
• Muscle adaptations will occur if training
is specific
• Training must reflect an athlete’s
situation needs
Example: if you need to
improve your throw, smash
or spike, your exercise
prescription should include
strength or explosive power
exercises involving the arms.
Front
Lifts
Training Principles
Overload
To get stronger, the body must perform tasks that are more
challenging than those to which it is accustomed (stress the muscle).
Over time the body will adapt to the
overload and new demands will be needed.
Training Principles
Progression
In order to constantly improve, an athlete must progressively
increase the overload over time
• The athlete must be aware that loads and demands on body must
occur over time to increase performance and decrease injury
• Start slowly and increase exercise gradually
Repetitions (Reps): The number of times the activity is repeated
i.e.: 20 biceps curls
Sets: A group of repetitions performed together without rest
i.e.: 3 sets of 20 reps
F.I.T.T. Principle
Frequency
(More often)
• the amount of time per week spent training
• general guideline is 3-5 times/week
• determination of frequency depends greatly on the athlete’s
level of fitness, athletic aspirations,
Intensity
(More difficult)
• how hard the individual must work
• taken as a percentage of the individual’s maximal aerobic and
anaerobic power
• general guideline is 50%-100% of athlete’s maximal intensity
F.I.T.T. Principle
Time
(longer)
• amount of time spent in a single training session
• general guideline is 3-6 times/week
• depends on the athlete’s level of fitness, athletic aspirations,
and type of training
Type
• either aerobic or anaerobic training programs, or a combination
of both
• depends on the athlete’s level of fitness, athletic aspirations,
and sport or activity for which he or she is training
Individual Differences
Every athlete has a different physical and psychological makeup
•
•
•
•
•
Pre-training fitness levels
Requirements within their sport
Age and gender
Ability to recover from workouts
Ability to recover from injury
Types of Muscle Contraction
Concentric Contraction
occurs when the muscle shortens while producing tension
(i.e.: lifting a weight – climbing stairs – climbing rope)
Eccentric Contraction
occurs when the muscle lengthens while producing tension
(i.e.: lowering a weight - bending forward)
Isometric Contraction
performed against resistance while the load remains constant
Isotonic Contraction
a contraction performed against an immovable resistance – muscle tension
is developed but there is no change in the length of the muscle or the
angle of the joint
Isokinetic Contraction
occurs when a muscle contracts maximally at a constant speed over a full
range or the joint movement. (The stronger the effort the stronger the
resistance)
Sensible Strength Training
• A common mistake that lifters make is completing a high number
of exercises in a workout
• Adolescence should perform no more than 30-36 sets per
workout. 12 exercises of 3 sets should be the absolute maximum
• 3 sets of 10 reps at 60% max is a good starting point
• In the early stages train twice a week ( Monday + Thursday)
• When the law of diminishing returns occurs, more frequent
workout will be needed
• Never lift on back to back days (36 hours)
• High intensity workouts should only used by advanced lifters
with at least 1-2 years of weight training experience
Sensible Strength Training
The following chart highlights the relationship between the number
of reps, the percentage of max and training objective.
Reps
% of Max
Objective
Reps
% of Max
1
100
11
74
2
95
12
73
3
91
Maximum
Strength
Zone
13
72
4
88
14
70
5
85
15
69
6
80
16
68
7
79
17
66
8
77
18
64
9
76
19
62
10
75
20
60
Powerlifting
Bodybuilding
Objective
Strength and
Endurance
Sensible Strength Training
Research shows that the number of sets should be
inversely proportional to the number of reps performed
Reps
2-3
Sets
6 -10
% of Maximum
90 - 95
Rest Interval
5-8 minutes
4-7
8 -10
11 - 12
5 -10
4-6
3-5
80-89
75-79
less than 75
3-6 minutes
2-5 minutes
1-3 minutes
Research shows that 3-10 sets are usually needed for
optimal loading. However, the first weeks should
include 1-2 sets with a gradual increase.
The Principle of Diminishing Returns
A person’s training gains will reflect that person’s prior level
of training.
• Beginners make larger gains in their fitness levels over a
relatively short period of time
• When an athlete’s training experience accumulates they
reach their performance plateau where performance levels
off and improvements may be non-existent.
Must change exercise prescription
Ethical vs. unethical training methods
The Principle of Reversibility
The principle of reversibility occurs when the body undergoes
training and then the training effect is removed. The muscles lose
the benefits of training.
“USE IT OR LOSE IT”
Atrophy – when muscles undergo a period of inactivity they will
lose strength and size
Detraining – occurs when someone who has undergone a significant
amount of training and then reduces or removes the
effects of training. Reasons include: injury, lack of
motivation, overtraining, and burnout
Improving Flexibility
Most athletes follow a routine of stretching exercises to increase
muscle flexibility. Flexibility is crucial for athletes participating
in sport that involves muscled that are put through a wide range
of motion.
Contrary to popular belief, stretching before a workout does not
decrease the occurrence of injury. The warm-up, not stretching,
performed before the activity is the important deterrent for
injury.
Stretching offers more long term benefits by maintaining
flexibility. Flexibility at the joint decreases the risk of injury
Flexibility Physiology
Muscle spindles, located within muscle
cells, protect the muscle from injury.
They respond to changes in muscle or
tendon tension by sensing how far and
fast a muscle is being stretched and,
when activated, produce a stretch
reflex. This reflexive action causes the
muscle to contract to prevent
overstretching the joint.
Also located within the muscle tendon is another
sensor called the golgi tendon organ (GTO), which
responds to changes in muscle length by sensing
how much tension is being placed on the tendon.
The GTO differs from the muscle spindle in that,
when activated, it relaxes the antagonist muscle.
Factors That Limit Flexibility
A number of factors can affect flexibility:
•
•
•
•
•
•
condition of joint ligaments (loose-tight)
body composition – fat may act as a “wedge”
girls are more flexible than boys
age – flexibility decreases with age
inactivity
scar tissue on skin/muscle may limit stretching at the joint
Guidelines to Improve Flexibility
Warm-up with a slow jog before stretching;
Work flexibility gradually;
Stretch until you feel tightness not pain;
Hold stretch for 15-20 seconds;
Repeat stretch at least three times;
Perform daily for maximum benefit;
Stretching Terminology
Active Stretching
A range of motion generated by individual effort
voluntary muscular contraction
Passive Stretching
• Range of motion is achieved with the help of
an external force (partner, weight, rubber
band) with no associated muscular contraction
• Helps to achieve a wider range of motion
Stretching Techniques
There are four basic stretch techniques
Ballistic
The oldest technique is the ballistic stretch which makes use of
repetitive bouncing movements. It has been virtually abandoned
by almost all experts in the field due to safety concerns.
Static
The static technique involves actively stretching
a muscle to the point of mild discomfort by
holding it in a maximal stretch for an extended
period. Recommendations for the optimal holding time
are varied, ranging from 10 seconds to 60 seconds.
It is a very effective, relatively safe, and popular
method of stretching.
Stretching Techniques
Dynamic
Dynamic stretching uses movements that mimic a specific
sport or exercise in an exaggerated yet controlled manner.
• involves slow gradual movement of the
joint through its full range of motion
• involves using small intervals rather
than one long pull
• first repetition over a relatively small
range of motion gradually increasing
the amplitude range reaching the
maximum range after 10-20 movements
• process is repeated 3 – 5 times using
body weight or an assisting partner
Stretching Techniques
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
PNF stretching is an effective stretching method for increasing
range of motion. It is considered to be the most effective way to
increase static flexibility and is a combination of static passive
stretching and isometric stretching
PNF stretching is
• excellent for targeting specific muscle groups
• increasing flexibility
• range of movement
• improves muscular strength.
PNF Stretching
PNF stretching combines muscle contraction and relaxation with passive
and partner-assisted stretching in three phases:
Hold – Relax
The athlete and partner assume the position for the
stretch, and then the partner extends the body limb
until the muscle is stretched and tension is felt.
Position is held for 10 seconds.
Contract Relax
The athlete then contracts the stretched muscle
for 5 - 6 seconds and the partner must resist all
movement.
Hold Relax with Opposing muscle Contraction
The muscle group is relaxed, then immediately and
cautiously pushed past its normal range of movement
for about 30 seconds. Allow 30 seconds recovery
before repeating the procedure 2 - 4 times.