Case Study: Vietnam
How was a small country like Vietnam
able to win a war
against the USA?
Essay Question
This section includes:
• Background
• 1957 to 1965 – Struggle in Vietnam between the
South Vietnamese army and the communist-trained
rebels (Viet Cong)
• 1965 to 1969 – North Vietnamese-USA struggle
• The war from the Vietnamese and USA perspective
• The war as a world issue
• 1969 to 1975 – USA withdrawal from Vietnam
• Conclusion: How the war is remembered today
(Refer to CAPS, p26)
2
Where in the World is Vietnam?
USA
Vietnam
Background
• In the 19th century France
colonised a large part of SE
Asia including modern day
Vietnam. (French Indo-China)
• 1941: Japan invaded and
occupied SE Asia.
• 1941: Two communists /
Vietnamese nationalists (Ho
Chi Minh and Nguyen Vo Giap)
set up Viet Minh (League for
the Independence of Vietnam)
• Viet Minh funded by the US.
Ho Chi Minh
Post-War Settlement 1945-1954
• 1945: Japan was defeated in
WWII, withdrew from SE Asia
• September 1945 Ho Chi Minh
announced Vietnam was an
independent and democratic
republic.(TXT)
• The French attempted to reestablish their empire and took
back control of the south
• Vietminh continued to fight for
full independence and a united
Vietnam
• 1954 Viet Minh siege of Dien
Bien Phu French surrendered
The Geneva Agreement (TXT)
Ho Chi Minh
Trail
In May 1954, Britain, France, China, the
Soviet Union, the USA and Vietnam met in
Geneva to decide the future of Vietnam
The Geneva Peace Accords
• The Geneva Peace Accords,
signed by France and Vietnam
in the summer of 1954,
provided for the temporary
partition of Vietnam at the
17th parallel, with national
elections in 1956 to reunify
the country.
• In the North, a communist
regime, supported by the
Soviet Union and the People's
Republic of China, set up its
headquarters in Hanoi under
the leadership of Ho Chi Minh.
Opposition to Geneva Accords
• The United States prevented the elections that were
promised under the Geneva conference because it knew
that the Communists would win.
– Secretary of State John Foster Dulles thought the Geneva Accords
granted too much power to the Communist Party of Vietnam.
– He and President Dwight D.
Eisenhower supported the creation
of a counter-revolutionary
alternative south of the 17th parallel.
• This was accomplished through
formation of the Southeast Asia
Treaty Organization (SEATO).
A New Nation in the South
• Using SEATO for political cover, the
Eisenhower administration helped create
a new nation in southern Vietnam.
• In 1955, with the help of massive
amounts of American military, political,
and economic aid, the government of the
Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) was
born.
• The following year, Ngo Dinh Diem, a
staunchly anti-Communist figure from
the South, won a dubious election that
made him president of South Vietnam
1954-1956: USA give backing to South
Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem
• 1955 Diem (supported by
USA) was officially elected
president of South
Vietnam in rigged elections
• Diem was a dictator. He
was a Catholic and
persecuted the Buddhist
majority. Land was taken
from peasants and given to
Diem’s supporters
• 1956: Diem refused to
allow elections to re-unite
North and South Vietnam.
1957 to 1965
Struggle in Vietnam between the South
Vietnamese army (ARVN) and the communisttrained rebels (also known as the Viet Cong)
(During this phase the USA sent money, military
equipment and ‘advisors’ to support to the South
Vietnam government but had not yet committed
US combat troops to fight in Vietnam.)
Growing opposition to Diem’s
government from within South Vietnam
• 1959: Vietminh (North Vietnam Communists)
supporters in South Vietnam formed the National
Liberation Front (or Viet Cong) – used guerrilla
tactics(txt) against ARVN.
• 1960: Diem (with CIA support) forcibly relocated
whole villages thought to be supportive of Viet
Cong into ‘Strategic Hamlets’ (enclosed by
ditches, barbed wires and under 24hr guard)
• USA supported South Vietnamese government
Army (ARVN) by dollar aid and air support +
backed up with counter-insurgency forces (USA’s
Green Beret’s) + USA sent more ‘advisors’
(another 15,000) in operation ‘beef-up’ (!)
The Strategic Hamlet Program
• To counteract the NLF's
success in the countryside,
Washington and Saigon
launched an ambitious
military effort in the rural
areas.
– Rounded up villagers and
placed them in "safe
hamlets" controlled by the
government of South
Vietnam.
– The idea was to isolate the
NLF from villagers, its base of
support
Growing opposition to Diem’s
government from within South Vietnam
• 1963: an elderly monk
named Thich Quang Duc,
set himself ablaze in
protest against Diem’s
corrupt regime .
• 1963: a CIA funded a
military coup in South
Vietnam which overthrew
and killed Diem.
• 22 Nov 1963: President JF
Kennedy was
assassinated. LB Johnson
became President of USA
US photojournalist Malcolm Brown who
took this ‘iconic’ photograph.
Why did America become
involved in a war in Vietnam?
American Presidents during the period of US
involvement in Vietnam:
Dwight D Eisenhower (Rep): 1953- 1961
John F. Kennedy (Dem): 1961-1963
Lyndon B Johnson (Dem): 1963-1969
Richard Nixon (Rep): 1969- 1974
The ‘Domino Effect’
(Strategic importance of Vietnam in
the context of the Cold War)
In 1949 the Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong won their civil war
and established a communist government. USA feared that other countries in
the region would fall to communism unless the USA actively prevented it.
December 1961 White Paper
• In 1961, President Kennedy
sent a team to Vietnam to
report on conditions in the
South and
to assess future American aid
requirements.
• The report, known as the
"December 1961 White Paper,"
argued for:
– An increase in military, technical, and economic aid
– The introduction of large-scale American "advisers"
to help stabilize the Diem regime and crush the NLF.
Military Coup
• By late September, the Buddhist
protest had created such dislocation in the south that the Kennedy
administration supported a coup.
• In 1963, some of Diem's own
generals approached the American
Embassy in Saigon with plans to overthrow Diem.
• With Washington's tacit approval, Diem and his brother
were captured and later killed.
• Three weeks later, President Kennedy was assassinated
on the streets of Dallas.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident (Trigger)
• President Johnson was ambivalent about escalation of US
involvement in Vietnam.
• Robert Macnamara (sec of Defence) and McGeorge Bundy
(national security advisor) were urging full-scale military
intervention to prevent the fall of South Vietnam.
• In August 1964 US patrols (gathering intelligence information)
in the Gulf of Tonkin (off the North Vietnamese coast) claimed
to have been fired upon by .
• US President Johnson used these attacks to persuade Congress
to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave the president
the power to ‘take all necessary measures to repel any armed
attack against the forces of the US and to prevent further
aggression.’
• By end of 1965 200,000 US combat soldiers had been sent to
Vietnam.
• By 1968 there were 500,000 US combat soldiers in Vietnam
Gulf of Tonkin Incident
1965 - 1969: North VietnameseUSA struggle
During this phase of the war (under President
Lyndon B Johnson’s leadership) the USA sent
combat troops (many of whom were teenager
conscript soldiers) to fight in the Vietnam War.
By 1968 500,000 US soldiers were stationed in
Vietnam.
1965 - 1969: North Vietnamese-USA
struggle (The Players)
USA’s objective:
Containment.
To stop the North Vietnamese
communists taking over in South
Vietnam and prevent Vietnam being
united as a communist country leading
to a domino effect in SAE.
South Vietnam
government’s objective:
To keep control over South
Vietnam and to maintain the
support of the US.
North Vietnam’s objective:
National Liberation
To unify North and South Vietnam
under a communist government.
Viet Cong’s objective
To build up support in South
Vietnam to help achieve North
Vietnam’s objective
1965 - 1969: North Vietnamese-USA
struggle (The Strategies)
US Strategies:
Force North Vietnam to give up
the war
Make North Vietnam agree to a
settlement acceptable to US
Protect South Vietnam and win
support of South Vietnamese
South Vietnam
government’s strategies
Remove Viet Cong from villages
Defend South Vietnam from
invasion
Rely on US money and support to
achieve objectives
North Vietnam and Viet
Cong Strategies:
Convince the people of South
Vietnam to get rid of their
government
Destroy the morale of the ARVN
(South Vietnam army)
Inflict enough damage on US
troops to convince it to withdraw
Fight until full national liberation
and unification of Vietnam was
achieved
1965 - 1969: North Vietnamese-USA struggle
(The Tactics)
USA/ ARVN
• 7 Feb 1965: USA launched
‘Operation Rolling Thunder’:
- Widespread aerial bombing
using cluster bombs and
Chemical weapons (‘Agent
Orange’ and Napalm used)
• Search and Destroy missions
on enemy units (used air
mobility to move troops)
• Bomb and cut off supply
routes from North Vietnam to
Viet Cong
• Win Hearts And Minds (build
trust) with South Vietnamese
North Vietnam/ Viet Cong
• Build support base among local
population in South Vietnam.
• Avoid open battles with enemy –
use of guerrilla tactics
• Booby traps, ambushes and
mines
• Attack at night
• Use local population to gather
information about troop
movements
• NB: 31 January 1968 Viet Cong
launched an attack on over 100
towns and cities in the south
during New Year (or Tet) holiday
The Tet Offensive – 31 January 1968
(A turning point in the war)
• Viet Cong launched an attack on over 100 cities in
South Vietnam (BBC)
• Some historians now argue that this offensive was a
disaster for the Viet Cong and that after Tet it was
largely the North Vietnamese Army which led the
struggle in the south.
• USA also claimed a US victory. BUT… US public were
horrified that Viet Cong could launch such an attack
which included seizing the US embassy in Saigon.
• ‘What the hell’s going on here? I thought we were
winning this war?’ (TV journalist Walter Conkite)
1965 - 1969: North Vietnamese-USA
struggle
• By 1968 it was clear that the USA was not
winning the war. (Stalemate?)
• March 1968: President Johnson rejected the
US army’s request for more troops to be sent
to Vietnam + announced he would not stand
for re-election.
• January 20, 1969 - Richard M. Nixon was
inaugurated as the 37th U.S. President. He
pledged "peace with honor.”
1969 to 1975 – USA withdrawal from Vietnam
• 1969: ‘Nixon Doctrine’ stated that US would help
those who helped themselves – ‘Vietnamisation’
phase of war began.
• 1970: Congress revoked the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution
• Nixon’s bombing raids into Cambodia led to
intensification of anti-war protest within USA.
• Reduced US combat from 543,000 in 1968 to 24,200
by 1972.
• 27 January 1973 ceasefire agreed. Required
unilateral withdrawal of all US troops from Vietnam.
The Civil war continued until March 1975 when
North Vietnam took control of Saigon, renamed it
Ho Chi Minh City and Vietnam was re-united.
“From 1964-1972, the wealthiest and most
powerful nation in the history of the world
made a maximum military effort, with
everything short of atomic bombs, to defeat a
nationalist revolutionary movement in a tiny
peasant country – and failed”.
(H. Zinn, A People’s History of the USA, (New York, 1980, p460)
WHY?
Activity: Essay Plan
Work in groups of 3 at your tables.
1.
Use the images and text from the powerpoint
presentation and the ideas conveyed in the You Tube
footage to identify the main reasons why a small
country like Vietnam was able to defeat the powerful
USA. Write these key ideas in the first set of boxes on
your Essay Planning Tool.
2.
For each ‘General Idea’ identify a few ‘Specific
Examples’ which could be used to substantiate the
point you have made. Write these in the appropriate
boxes.
Extract from the Vietnamese
Declaration of Independence – 1945
… for more than eighty years, the French imperialists,
abusing the standard of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity,
have violated our fatherland and oppressed our fellowcitizens. They have acted contrary to the ideals of
humanity and justice…we, members of the Provisional
Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam,
solemnly declare to the world that Vietnam has the right
to be free and independence country…The entire
Vietnamese people are determined to mobilise all their
physical and mental strength to sacrifice their lives and
property to safeguard their independence and liberty.
Deforestation caused by USA spraying
Agent Orange (TCDD Dioxin)
The Vietnamese Red Cross
estimates that up to three
million Vietnamese have
suffered health effects from
dioxin exposure, of whom
150,000 are children with birth
defects
Ten year old Phan Thi Kim Phuc running naked down a street having torn off her
burning clothes after an American Napalm attack. The US dropped over 400,000
tons of napalm on Vietnam during the war. (Napalm is a form of petroleum jelly
which sticks to anything and burns through houses, forests, human skin…
The Massacre at
My Lai 16 March 1968.
Two US
platoons
responsible for
the rape and
massacre of
c.347 unarmed
civilians.
We huddled the villagers up.
Women and children shot dead by American soldiers lie
We made them squat down. I poured about four clips into the group.
the road
the village
of My Lai, 1968.
Theinmothers
wereat
hugging
their children.
While we kept on firing .
(An extract from the evidence of Paul Meadlo who was a US soldier at My Lai.)
Conscripted Soldiers: ‘Cherries’
• Of the 3 million
Americans involved in
Vietnam war – about
two-thirds were
conscripts (‘cherries’)
• Average age of
conscript = 19 years
• 12 month – ‘tour of
duty’
• Anti-conscription
campaign in USA
A student (illegally) burns his draft card
during an anti-war demonstration. Over
200,000 young men dodged the draft.
A Soviet
cartoon
mocking the
large number
of US casualties
in Vietnam.
c. 1968
Kent State Massacre (4 May 1970)
National Guardsmen opened fire
on student protestors in Ohio,
killing four. This picture shows one
of the dead students,
Jeffrey Miller.
Casualties of War
Category
Year Range
Low
estimates
Medium
estimates
High
estimates
North Vietnamese
civilian deaths from
bombing
1965-72
65,000
North Vietnamese
soldiers killed
1965-72
500,000
Viet Cong deaths
1960-75
172,000
251,000
329,000
Viet Cong and North
Vietnamese soldiers
deaths combined
1960-75
533,000
1,011,000
1,489,000
South Vietnamese
civilian deaths from
gunfire / bombing
1960-75
361,000
391,000
720,000
South Vietnamese
soldiers killed
1960-75
219,000
266,000
313,000
US military deaths
1960-73
46,000
47,000
58,000
Source: Rudolph Rummel, Statistics of Vietnamese Democide: Estimates, Calculations and Sources, 1997.
Why did the USA lose the Vietnam War?
• Tactics: US Army’s conventional military tactics were
largely ineffective in the jungle terrain and faced with
the guerrilla warfare tactics. Bombing was costly and use
of chemical weapons increasingly unpopular with antiwar lobby within USA
• Anti-War movement within USA – an increasingly vocal
and visible minority which included veterans and
‘ordinary Americans’ as well as youths and students.
• Media coverage of the war – 1st TV war (this feeds into
anti-war sentiment within USA but also puts
international pressure on USA)
• North Vietnam and NLF were fighting a war of liberation
to free their country from foreign intervention. The USA
troops did not have the same commitment to a cause.
• Support for North Vietnamese from China and USSR
The war from the ‘USA’ and ‘Vietnamese’
perspective (NB: In both countries there are very
different opinions – be wary of generalisations)
Vietnam
• The American War.
• An anti-colonial war of
liberation.
• A nationalist war
• A civil war
• Long term impact of war has
lived on in the dead and
displaced, the widows,
orphans, the maimed and
mutilated, the environmental
destruction, the birth defects.
United States of America
•
•
•
•
The Vietnam War
A war to contain communism
A Cold War conflict
Long term impact includes
mixed emotions about the
losses, injuries and trauma
suffered, the human rights
violations committed in the
name of democracy, the
humiliation of defeat and the
futility of a war