INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
(MEDI1202)
Phase I semester 2
Contents
A. Principles: ................................................................................................................ 2
1. Course description ................................................................................................. 2
2. General Objectives ................................................................................................. 2
3. Content ................................................................................................................... 2
4. Specific Objectives ................................................................................................ 3
5. Assessment ........................................................................................................... 21
6. Outcome ............................................................................................................... 21
7. Resources ............................................................................................................. 21
b. Organization........................................................................................................... 21
1. Module Coordinator (s)........................................................................................ 21
2. Tutors ................................................................................................................... 22
3. List of lectures...................................................................................................... 22
4. Practicals and tutorials ......................................................................................... 23
5. E learning facilities .............................................................................................. 24
6. time table.............................................................................................................. 24
C. Logistics.................................................................................................................. 25
1. Student’s List ....................................................................................................... 25
2. Group allocations ................................................................................................. 25
3. Teaching locations ............................................................................................... 25
4. Attendance Regulation ......................................................................................... 26
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A. PRINCIPLES:
1. COURSE DESCRIPTION
Course code:
Contact hours:
Credit Hours:
Phase:
Semester:
MEDI1202
75
4 CR
one
2
Description:
This is an introductory basic physiology course provides students with the
foundation of how the human body functions. It also covers the integrative
regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. Body systems covered
include the muscular, neural, cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary, digestive,
haematology, immune, reproductive and endocrine organ systems. Principles
of body responses to some adverse physiologic situations are also emphasized
during tutorials in order to help the student to link the basic sciences with the
clinical setting. This approach is expected to prepare the students for
understanding of integrated system modules courses which follow.
2. GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the main parts of the human body and list their functions.
2. Perform experiments to demonstrate lung capacities and measuring pulse.
3. Describe the basic function of the nervous system, the eye and the ear, the blood
system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the excretory system and the
reproductive system.
4. Discuss the mechanisms of muscle contraction and nerve conduction.
5. Explain how hormones control blood glucose and blood ions.
6. Discuss the control of the endocrine system, blood flow and the heart beat,
ventilation, digestion.
7. Explain how the immune system controls pathogens.
8. Describe how digestion and absorption take place in the gut.
9. Explain how the kidney works in excreting and controlling loss of nutrients.
10. Describe how hormones control the female ovarian and menstrual cycles.
3. CONTENT
1. Homeostasis and control mechanisms
2. Body fluid compartments and fluid balance
3. Muscle physiology
4. Haematology
5. Body temperature regulation
6. Autonomic nervous system
7. Respiratory system
8. Cardiovascular system
9. Alimentary system
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10. Renal system
11. Reproductive system
12. Endocrine system
13. Immune system
14. Central nervous system
4. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Lectures
HOMEOSTASIS AND CONTROL MECHANISMS (2 lectures)
1. Explain the meaning of the term internal environment and homeostasis and
appreciate the importance of constancy of the statics (milieu interior).
2. State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment at a constant
level or between narrow limits.
3. Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting
changes.
4. Understand what is meant by controlled variable and set point.
5. Explain the feed back mechanisms in control system i.e negative feedback
mechanisms.
6. Understand two examples of negative feed back systems
a. Regulation of arterial pressure by baroreceptors
b. Regulation of O2 and CO2 concentration in the extracellular fluid by chemoreceptors
7. Give examples of negative feed back mechanisms in the endocrine system
a. thyroid hormone homeostasis
b. insulin and glucagon in blood glucose homeostasis
8. Give an example of positive feedback mechanisms e.g. parturition (child birth).
BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS AND FLUID BALANCE (1 lectures)
1. Differentiate between the terms osmole, osmolarity, osmolality and tonicity.
2. List the typical value and normal range for plasma osmolality.
3. Explain osmosis in terms of a differentially permeable membrane.
4. Understand the concepts of osmosis and osmotic pressure.
5. Define tonicity and be able to use the terms isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic.
6. Predict the change in transcellular fluid exchange that would be caused by placing
a red blood cell in solutions with varying tonicities.
7. State the water content of the body and its physiological variations with age, fat
content and gender
8. Know sources of water gain and loss.
9. Understand the distribution of body water in the various body fluid compartments.
10. Explain the principles of methods of measurement of body fluids.
11. List the concentration of some important solutes in intracellular and extracellular
compartments.
12. Understand the role of osmotic pressure in the distribution of body water into
compartments.
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MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY (3 lectures)
1. Correlate the three types of muscle tissue with their functions.
2. Understand the structure and function of neuromuscular junction.
3. Understand the molecular organization of skeletal muscle fibers.
4. Describe how muscle action potential arises.
5. Understand the process of excitation contraction coupling.
6. Outline the steps involved in the sliding filament mechanism of skeletal muscle
contraction.
7. Describe the structure and function of a motor unit.
8. Explain the phases of twitch contraction.
9. Describe temporal and spatial summation of muscle tension.
10. Distinguish between isometric and isotonic contraction.
11. Define muscular fatigue and list some intracellular factors that can cause fatigue.
12. Describe changes in muscle tissue with exercise, disuse and denervation.
13. List the reactions by which muscle fibers produce ATP.
HAEMATOLOGY (3 lectures)
Components of blood, physiological properties of the red blood cells (RBC) and white
blood cells (WBC)
1. Describe the cellular and non-cellular components of blood.
2. Enumerate functions of the non-cellular part.
3. Describe the physical characteristics, functions and life cycle of RBCs.
4. Describe briefly the process of erythropoiesis & list the factors that affect it.
5. State the normal values for Hemoglobin percentage and RBC count in males and
females.
6. Define anemia and appreciate that iron deficiency anemia is the commonest
variety world wide.
7. List the common symptoms of anemia.
8. Identify the different types of WBCs.
9. Enumerate the functions of the various types of WBCs.
10. Describe the steps of formation of WBCs.
Basic principles of hemostasis
1. Describe the 4 steps of hemostasis.
2. Describe platelets, their normal count, development, and functions.
3. Describe the process of coagulation & the role of Vit K in it.
4. Define normal coagulation time.
5. List the natural anti-coagulants present in blood.
6. Define hemophilia and list possible symptoms of hemophilia.
7. Explain normal bleeding time and define Purpura.
Introduction to Blood groups
1. List the various types of blood groups.
2. Appreciate that the RBC surface antigens A or B, or their absence is responsible
for determining the blood groups as A, B, AB or O, and that these are genetically
determined..
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3. Appreciate that the plasma contains antibodies of the same name.
4. Compare the distribution of blood groups in the Omani population with some
other populations
5. Describe the importance of the Rhesus blood group
6. Define the term Rh incompatibility
7. Define the term “Mismatched transfusion”.
8. Explain the terms blood grouping and cross matching
9. Define the term “transfusion hazards”.
IMMUNE SYSTEM (2 lectures)
1. Briefly describe hematopoiesis of lymphoid and myeloid lineages.
2. Define innate and adaptive/acquired immunity.
3. Compare and contrast major features of the innate and adaptive immune system:
kinetics, specificity, and memory.
4. Describe the functions of cells and proteins of the innate immune system.
5. Briefly describe localized and systemic inflammation.
6. Describe the two arms of adaptive immunity: humoral and cell-mediated
immunity.
7. Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs and briefly describe their
roles.
8. List the classes of antibodies and identify a major function of each class.
9. Define antigens and immunogens.
10. Briefly describe how immune cells recognize antigens and discriminate self
from non-self.
11. Briefly explain the consequences of deficiency in the immune system.
12. Briefly explain how overactive immunity can cause diseases.
BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION (2 lectures)
Heat and energy balance
1. Identify the sources of heat gain and heat loss.
2. Appreciate that the metabolic rate is the rate of energy use.
3. Define BMR, how it is measured, and factors affecting it.
4. Define the normal range of core and skin temperature.
5. Understand the physical mechanisms of heat exchange.
Thermoregulation and abnormalities of heat regulation
1. Describe the function of the hypothalamus as a thermostat.
2. Discuss the control of heat production: shivering.
3. Discuss control of heat loss: skin vasomotor activity.
4. Explain the integrated responses to cold and heat exposure.
5. Discuss the pathogenesis of fever.
6. Outline examples of abnormalities of body temperature, i.e. heat exhaustion, heat
stroke, and hypothermia.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (2 lectures)
1. Explain the role of the autonomic nervous system in homeostasis.
2. Compare and contrast the autonomic nervous system with somatic system.
3. Describe the components of the autonomic nervous system.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a. Autonomic sensory neurons.
b. Autonomic motor neurons.
c. Autonomic ganglia.
d. Autonomic plexuses.
Describe that the autonomic sensory neurons is a visceral and mainly involuntary
system.
Discuss that the autonomic sensory neurons is organized into three divisions.
a. The Sympathetic (Thoracolumber) division.
b. The Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) division.
c. The Enteric division.
Describe the neurotransmitters and their receptor in the autonomic sensory
neurons.
Discuss the physiological effects of the autonomic nervous system.
Explain the role of the hypothalamus and other higher brain areas in controlling
autonomic fuctions.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (3 lectures)
Basic physics of atmosphere as required to be understood for the study of
respiratory physiology
1. State the pressure and composition of atmospheric air.
2. Appreciate that the composition does not change with increasing altitude or in
hyperbaric environment.
3. Describe various properties of gases, and gas laws: Boyle’s law, law of partial
pressures of gases, Henry’s law of solubility of gases.
4. Explain that the main function of the respiratory system is to maintain normal
blood arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions.
5. Define the mean normal values of these gases in the arterial blood.
6. Describe using a simple diagram the complete process of respiration
Overall functional arrangement of the respiratory system
1. Appreciate that the lung/chest wall system is a balloon in a box arrangement.
2. Define ventilation and associated terms: Inspiration, expiration, intra pleural
pressure, tidal volume, respiratory, and minute ventilation, dead space & alveolar
ventilation.
3. Outline the functions of respiratory muscles in bringing about ventilation.
4. Outline the processes of Diffusion, perfusion.
5. Describe the relationship of ventilation and perfusion: basic concept.
6. Describe briefly carriage of respiratory gases.
Concept of oxygen cascade and alveolar air composition
1. Explain the role of water vapour pressure in inspired air.
2. Explain the term oxygen cascade.
3. State the composition of alveolar air.
4. State the compositions of expired air
5. Describe the methods of measurement of expired and alveolar air composition.
6. Define the term Tissue respiration.
7. Explain briefly the concept of control of ventilation
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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (5 lectures)
Functional organization of the cardiovascular system
1. Describe the functional organization of cardiovascular system
2. List the functions of cardiovascular system.
3. Describe the main function of arteries, capillaries and veins
4. Describe the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart and through the
systemic and pulmonary circulations.
5. Compare and contrast the systemic and pulmonary circulation.
Properties of cardiac muscle
1. Define the terms; Rhythmicity, Excitability, Conductivity and Contractility.
2. Describe cardiac syncytium.
3. Outline the normal pathway of the cardiac impulse.
4. Describe the excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac muscles and compare it to
excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscles.
5. Compare and contrast action potential in sinoatrial node and ventricular muscle.
6. Explain the significance of the plateau and refractory period in ventricular muscle
action potential.
Introduction to cardiac cycle and cardiac output
1. Explain the ECG waves and correlate them with mechanical events.
2. Describe the phases of cardiac cycle.
3. Identify the origin of heart sounds.
4. Define heart rate, stroke volume, venous return and cardiac output.
5. Explain the Starling’s law of the heart.
6. List the function of autonomic nervous system on the heart.
Haemodynamic
1. Define resistance and understand the effects of adding resistance in series vs.in
parallel in total resistance and flow.
2. Describe the relationship between pressure, flow and resistance in the vasculature.
3. Explain how Poiseuille’s law influences resistance to flow and define the factors
that determine resistance.
4. Describe the change in pressure along vascular tree and explain how flow to any
organ is altered by change in resistance to that organ.
5. Explain types of flow, laminar versus turbulent and the transition between them;
Reynold’s number.
Introduction to blood pressure
1. Define the term blood pressure.
2. Define the terms: systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial
blood pressure and pulse pressure.
3. Define the term total peripheral resistance.
4. List the short, intermediate and long term mechanisms involve on blood pressure
regulation.
5. Describe the role of baroreceptor on blood pressure regulation
ALIMENTARY SYSTEM (4 lectures)
General principles of gastrointestinal system function
1. List the main functions of the digestive system.
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2. Define the terms: ingestion, digestion, absorption, motility, secretion, reabsorption.
3. Outline the basic processes performed by the digestive system.
4. Describe the innervation and the neural control of the gastrointestinal tract.
5. Describe the role of enteric nervous system in control of gastrointestinal function.
6. List the types of motor activity of the gastrointestinal tract.
7. List the main functions of the GI hormones.
8. List factors affecting gastrointestinal secretion and motility.
Secretory function of the digestive system
1. Describe the location of the salivary glands, composition and function of saliva.
2. Outline the composition of the pancreatic juice.
3. Understand regulation of pancreatic juice secretion.
4. Explain function of bile.
5. Describe the role of CCK in causing release of bile from the gall bladder,
including the effects on the sphincter of Oddi.
6. Describe the mechanisms by which chyme from the stomach is neutralized in the
duodenum.
7. Explain functions of the liver
8. Define enterohepatic circulation
9. List the functions of gastric acid
Motility function of the gastrointestinal system
1. Describe the functional anatomy of the esophagus and appreciate how the contents
of the respiratory and digestive systems are kept separate during swallowing.
2. List the three stages of swallowing.
3. Describe the storage, digestion, and motility roles of the stomach
4. Understand how gastric emptying is regulated.
5. Understand the motility patterns of the small intestine.
6. Contrast the colonic motor activity during a “mass movement” with that during
haustration and the consequence of each type of colonic motility.
7. Describe the sequence of events occurring during defecation, differentiating those
movements under voluntary control and those under intrinsic control.
Digestive and absorptive functions of the gastrointestinal system
1. Describe the mechanical and chemical digestion of the stomach.
2. Describe the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates.
3. Describe the digestion and absorption of protein.
4. Describe the digestion and absorption of lipids.
5. Describe the absorption of electrolytes, and water-soluble vitamins, including the
role of intrinsic factor in the absorption of vitamin B12.
RENAL SYSTEM (4 lectures)
Glomerular filtration
1. List the functions of the urinary system.
2. Describe the structure of nephrons and associated blood vessels and know that it
is the functional unit of the kidney.
3. Identify the three basic processes performed by nephrons and indicate where each occurs.
4. Explain what is meant by Glomerular Filtration Rate and discuss the factors affecting it.
5. Define renal blood flow, renal plasma flow and filtration fraction.
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6. Explain the structure and functional significance of the glomerular filtration membrane.
7. Describe the composition of the glomeruluar filtrate.
8. Discuss the pressure governing glomerular filtration and know how to calculate
net filtration pressure using capillary and Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic and
oncotic pressures.
9. Define what is meant by renal clearance and know that creatine clearance is a
good measure of GFR.
Tubular functions
1. Explain what is meant by tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.
2. Describe the different segments of the renal tubules.
3. State the routes of water and solute reabsorption.
4. Describe the contribution of the major nephron segments to the reabsorption of
the filtered load of solute and water.
5. Discuss how the movement of substances across the walls of the tubular system
influence the composition of the filtrate.
6. Locate the sites of sodium reabsorption.
7. Discuss actions of hormone aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide in the above process.
8. Discuss the factors influencing release of rennin from juxtaglomerular apparatus.
9. Describe the factors that regulate K+ secretion in the collecting duct.
10. Describe the renal regulation of Ca2+ and phosphate transport by PTH.
Regulation of body fluid osmolarity
1. State that the kidney plays a major role in the regulation of body fluids osmolarity.
2. Describe the relationship between extracellular fluid osmolarity (ECF) and the Na+ ion
concentration.
3. Identify how changes in body fluids osmolarity cause anti diuretic hormone (ADH) release.
4. Describe the role of these changes on the ability of the kidney to produce either dilute or
concentrated urine.
5. Compare how ADH, aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide influence the volume and
concentration of urine.
Acid-base balance
1. Identify the normal range of pH values, and the upper and lower limits compatible with life.
2. Compare the roles of buffers, exhalation of carbon dioxide and kidney
excretion of H+ in maintaining pH of body fluids.
3. Identify the cells that secrete H+ ions into the tubules.
4. Outline acid-balance imbalances.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (2 lectures)
1. Compare the roles of the nervous and endocrine systems regulate body functions.
2. Explain the terms endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine secretions
3. Define hormone, target cell, receptor.
4. Describe how hormones interact with target-cell receptors, introducing the
concept of down-regulation and up-regulation.
5. Appreciate that hormones may be lipid or water soluble.
6. Describe the two general mechanisms of hormone action
7. Explain the effects of hormone binding proteins
8. Identify various hormone interactions.
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9. Describe the three types of signals that can control hormone secretion
10. State the location of each of the endocrine glands in the body and list the
hormones produced by each.
11. List the major effects of these hormones on the body.
12. Name disease states of the endocrine system
13. Describe how the hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion from the pituitary gland.
14. Describe how the pituitary gland regulates the secretion of hormones from other
endocrine glands.
15. Diagram the short-loop and long-loop negative feedback control of the anterior
pituitary hormone secretion.
16. Explain the importance of pulsatile and diurnal secretion.
17. Discuss the role of negative and positive feedback mechanisms in the
maintenance of homeostasis using examples.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (3 lectures)
Introduction to the male reproductive system
1. List the functions of the male reproductive system.
2. Name the male accessory reproductive glands and briefly describe the functions
of their secretion.
3. List the functions of the specialized cells of the testis.
4. Describe the process of spermatogenesis.
5. Discuss the hormonal control of the testes
6. Explain the function of the scrotal muscles in temperature regulation of the testes.
7. Define cryptorchidism and outline its consequences.
Introduction to the female reproductive system
1. List the functions of the female reproductive system.
2. Describe the process of oogenesis
3. Correlate the major events of the ovarian and uterine cycles.
4. List the principal physiological actions of estrogen and progesterone
5. Discuss the control of secretion of ovarian hormones.
Introduction to the physiology of pregnancy and lactation
1. Trace the pathways of sperm and egg transport that can result in fertilization and
implantation
2. List the major developmental events that occur during the embryonic period.
3. Describe the sources and functions of the hormones secreted during pregnancy
and the functions of the placenta.
4. List the major physiological changes in the mother during pregnancy.
5. Define the three stages of labor.
6. Outline the physiology of lactation.
Introduction to Psychology of Human Behavior (2 lectures)
Learning theory
1. To define the concept of learning theory
2. To understand the association between learning theory and human behavior
3. To understand the association between learning theory and emotions
4. To identify basic psychiatric problems associated with learning theory
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Perception and emotions
1. To define the cognitive function of perception within human physiological
systems
2. To briefly identify central brain processes that interpret sensory output from
physiological systems.
3. To identify basic visual perception deficits that develop from processing problems
4. To define the term “emotion” or “affect” and its relationship to cognitive
functioning
5. To define the physiological systems that store emotional material
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (5 lectures)
Organization of nervous system
1. Explain the general design of the Nervous system.
2. Exhibit the understanding that the central nervous system (CNS) consists of the
brain the spinal cord.
3. Describe the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of cranial nerves, spinal
nerves, ganglia and sensory receptors.
4. Discuss functional design of the Nervous system.
a. The sensory division.
b. The motor division.
c. The integrative system.
5. Expound autonomic nervous system.
a. Sympathetic Nervous System.
b. Parasympathetic Nervous System.
Somatic sensation
1. Describe a sensory receptor [Sense organ]
2. Discuss the classification of the sensory receptors and their nerve fibers.
3. Explain that sensory receptors transduce features of the stimulus into neural codes
(generator potential) that may leads to action potential.
4. Describe the term stimulus and the four attributes of sensation.
5. Explain adaptation of sensory receptors.
6. Describe two major ascending systems.
7. Describe that primary somato-sensory cortex is divided into four functional areas.
Physiology of vision
Explain the optics of eye
1. Explain focal length of lens.
2. Explain formation of an image
3. Explain errors of refraction.
4. Discuss photoreceptors and their role in vision (rods and cones).
5. Discuss ganglion cells axons form optic nerve.
6. Discuss information processing in primary visual cortex.
7. Describe color vision (three cone system).
8. Describe color blindness.
Physiology of hearing
1. Describe that the pressure waves (sound waves) consist of alternate regions of
compression and rarefaction of air molecules.
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2. Explain that the middle ear convert pressure waves in the air into fluid vibration
in the inner ear.
3. Discuss the role of the hair cells in the organ of Corti (mechanoelectric
transduction) in producing neural signals.
4. Describe that pitch discrimination depends on the region of the basilar membrane.
5. Discuss the role played by the basilar membrane in the perception of loudness.
6. Describe conduction and neural deafness.
Physiology of taste and olfaction
Explain taste receptor cell and their innervation.
1. Describe four basic taste qualities.
2. Outline afferents from taste buds to the gustatory nucleus.
3. Explain that taste is represented in the thalamus and the cortex.
4. Explain that neurons within the olfactory epithelium act as transducers.
5. Describe individual olfactory neurons respond to a variety of odorant.
6. Discuss that olfactory transduction involves second messenger related ion channels.
7. Describe that olfactory information first projects to the palcocortex and then to the
neocortex via thalamus.
Motor control of movements
1. Describe the motor functions of spinal cord and discuss the importance of
monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes.
2. Explain the role of the brain stem in controlling motor functions.
3. Demonstrate involvement of the cortex in voluntary motor activity.
4. Elucidate the role of basal ganglia in motor functions.
5. Discuss the part played by the cerebellum in motor coordination and balance.
Higher functions of the brain
1. Describe the lobes of cerebrum.
2. Explain the organization of cerebral cortex.
3. Discuss the regional specialization of the brain for different functions.
4. Describe the major speech areas.
5. Explicate hemispheric lateralization.
6. Describe the concept of the limbic system and its role in behavior.
Laboratory sessions
Laboratory 1
Muscle physiology I
1. Dissection of the sciatic-gastrocnemius (nerve-muscle) preparation.
2. Record a single muscle twitch.
3. Determine the threshold stimulus (the lowest voltage that can trigger the
response) by increasing the voltage until you see the response.
4. Determine the stimulus that produces the maximum response. ( Do not over
stimulate)
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5. Change the paper speed to maximum and record a single twitch. Remember to
conserve paper by lowering and lifting the paper drive lever before and after
recording a twitch.
Laboratory 2
Muscle physiology II
1. Determine the effect of temperature on the muscle twitch by dropping cold
Ringers solution directly on the muscle preparation. Continue recording until you
see the effects.
2. Reverse the effects by dropping on the muscle Ringers solution at room
temperature. Ensure that the cold Ringer solution is draining from the chamber.
Explain your observations
3. Record the single muscle twitch at the speed of 5 mm/sec
4. Increase the voltage until you record a maximum response.
5. Increase the frequency gradually until you record incomplete tetanus. Try to get a
clean record.
6. Increase the frequency further until you record complete tetanus. Explain how
these responses are produced.
7. Observe fatigue in the nerve-muscle preparation by first stimulating the nerve
using voltage that produces maximum response. Now increase the frequency to
5/sec and determine how long the stimulus must be continued to observe fatigue.
8. After the muscle has completely fatigued (can’t contract any more), place
electrodes directly on muscle (ask for help in doing so). Now stimulate the muscle
directly by-passing the nerves and record the response.
Laboratory 3
Muscle physiology III
This is a demonstration by a teacher.
1.
Recording of a compound action potential (demonstration).
This is an extracellular recording of all potentials of all axons in a mixed nerve
following maximal stimulation. A frog sciatic nerve is dissected out and laid in a
chamber containing stimulating and recording electrodes. The stimulating electrodes are
connected to the stimulator while the two recording electrodes are connected to the
amplifier and the oscilloscope.
With both recording electrodes placed on the surface of the axon, there is no
potential difference between them at rest.
 When the nerve is stimulated and the wave of depolarization reach the first
recording electrode, this electrode becomes negative relative to the other
recording electrode.
 As the impulse passes between the two electrodes the potential return to zero.

When the impulse passes the second electrode~ the first electrode becomes
positive relative to the second.
The up and down deflection depends on which electrode we make positive or
negative. It is conventional, however to connect the leads in such a way as to record an
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upward deflection when the first electrode becomes negative relative to the second
electrode. The experiment can also demonstrate all-or-none phenomenon.
The refractory period can be measured when the two stimuli are used and the time
between the two stimuli is altered. As the distance between stimulus artifact and the
beginning of the action potential can also be measured on the oscilloscope the conduction
velocity can be calculated. The amplitude and duration of the action potential can also be
accurately estimated.
2.
Length-tension relationship.
In this experiment the length of the muscle can be changed, and upon stimulation
the tension produced at each length can be measured to construct length tension curve.




Find the minimum voltage that produces the maximal contraction and record a
contraction
Gently turn the ratchet up 1 rnm at a time. Stimulate the muscle at the frequency
of l/sec and record the maximum contraction produced (set the paper speed at 2.5
mm/sec).
Repeat the same procedure until the magnitude of the tension starts to diminish.
Plot the increments of muscle length against the tension developed (Y axis has an
arbitrary units).
Laboratory 4
Measurements of lung volumes
1. Define Tidal Volume, Respiratory rate.
2. Measure these parameters as per instructions given using the provided
equipment.
3. Calculate minute ventilation as VE = VT x respiratory rate.
4. Define Vital capacity, Inspiratory Capacity, Expiratory reserve volume
5. Measure vital capacity as per instructions given.
6. From the records obtained, measure inspiratory capacity and expiratory
reserve volume
7. Recognize that Total Lung capacity, FRC and residual volume can not be
measured using the given equipment
8. Calculate the mean values of VT, VC and minute ventilation for the cohort
Laboratory 5
Circulation model
By the end of this practical the student should be able to:
1. Describe the main parts that make up the circulatory system.
2. explain the function of the elasticity of the aorta
3. Tabulate the blood pressure changes when:
a. Heart rate is changed
b. Stroke volume is changed
c. Peripheral resistance is changed
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4. Explain the role of veins as reservoirs.
Laboratory 6
Pulse
By the end of this practical the student should be able to:
1. To locate all palpable peripheral arterial pulses
2. To locate and examine the radial pulse and comment on pulse rate, rhythm, force
of pulse and condition of vessel wall.
3. Demonstrate the effect of exercise on pulse rate.
4. Auscultate for heart sounds
Tutorials
Tutorial 1(Homeostasis)
This tutorial will intend to clarify any doubts the student may have encountered during
the first 3 lectures of homeostasis and fluid compartments.
Tutorial 2 (Immunology)
Objectives
At the end of this tutorial, students should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Describe how antigens are recognized by the cells of the immune system.
Describe the functions of the cells of the innate and adaptive immune
system during an immune response.
Describe the roles of plasma proteins in inflammation.
Explain the different effects of humoral vs. cell-mediated immunity.
Explain specificity and memory in adaptive immunity.
Discuss major features of primary and secondary response.
Case 1
Iman, a 12-year-old girl, has been experiencing a high fever and severe sore throat for
several days, and she was diagnosed with strep throat caused by infection with
Streptococcus pyogenes (extracellular bacteria).

List the cells of the innate immune system and their progenitors. Among these
cells, which cell type(s) is most important for a protective response in this
case?

How are the bacteria recognized by the cells of the innate immune system?

What mechanism do these cells employ to destroy the bacteria?
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
List the plasma proteins that are involved in innate immunity and induce
inflammation. Among these proteins, which one can directly lyse the bacteria?

How is the fever induced? Identify the plasma proteins that induce fever in
Iman and explain their roles in developing fever.

Which arm of the adaptive immune system, humoral vs. cell-mediated, would
play a more important role in removing the bacteria (effector function) from
Iman’s body? Explain your answer.

Which antibody isotype(s) against the bacteria would you expect in Iman’s
serum? Which antibody isotype(s) would you expect in her mucosal surface of
the pharynx?
Case 2
Said, a 58-year-old man, was vaccinated with the seasonal flu vaccine composed of heatkilled H1N1 and H3N2 viruses. He experienced a low fever and mild swelling at the site
of injection for a few days.

Among the cells of the innate immune system, which cell type plays a main
role in responding to the vaccine?

Why did Said experience swelling at the site of vaccine injection? Explain
how swelling occurs.

How does the vaccine induce an immune response? How are they recognized
as antigens?

Where does the immune response occur?

Which arm of adaptive immunity plays more important role in prevention of
viral entry if Said is exposed to H1N1 or H3N2 virus? Explain your answer.

Which arm of adaptive immunity plays more important role in protective
response against the virus if Said is infected with H1N1 or H3N2 virus?
Explain your answer.

Two months after vaccination, Said was exposed to H3N2 and H5N1 viruses.
Explain the immune response using primary and secondary response curve.
Tutorial 3 (Haematology)
By the end of this tutorial by using the given clinical scenario, the student should be able
to:
Case 1 objectives.
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1. Appreciate the use of simple laboratory tests for distinguishing the normal
hematological parameters from the abnormal
2. Apply the basic knowledge to interpret pathophysiologic basis of the clinical
findings.
A patient was suspected to suffer from anemia because of the history and clinical
findings. The patient’s RBC count and Hb were measured. The values were Hb 9.2
g/dL and RBC count 3 * 10^12 /L. Also, 10 ml of blood of a patient was treated with
anti-coagulant and centrifuged at 3000 RPM for 30 minutes. The hematocrit (PCV)
value was 44%.





If you were the Physician, which of the above investigations would you reject as
incorrect. Explain why.
The “buffy coat” as seen on the PCV tube covers only a very small area of the
fluid column. What does it contain?
Suppose you want to improve the Hb status of the patient within a day, what will
you do?
The reticulocyte count in this patient was 0.3% before the treatment was started
with folic acid and iron. After about 1 week, it had increased to 2.5%. What does
this indicate?
Identify the following cells of the blood on a blood film (mature RBC,
reticulocyte, hypochromic RBC)?
Case 2 objectives
1. List the blood groups routinely identified in the laboratory
2. Appreciate the method used for blood grouping and cross matching
3. Understand how blood is stored pending its use as a transfusion fluid.
A patient was admitted with hemorrhagic shock after a road side accident. The surgeon
decided to give him a blood transfusion, and referred the case to you for advice.




How would you decide what should be the blood group which is to be
transfused in to this patient.
Apart from grouping you also do CROSS MATCHING. What do you mean by
this?
You have two bottles of the prescribed blood group in your blood bank. One is
2 days old and the other is 125 days old. Some one advised that the bottle
containing blood which is 125 days old should be used up first. What is your
reaction?
The stored blood does not coagulate. Why so?
Tutorial 4 (Alimentary system)
By the end of this tutorial the student should be able to:
1. Describe the gross anatomy of the stomach and its blood supply
2. List the functions of the stomach
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3. Identify that stomach secretes mainly HCL
4. Describe the digestive role of the stomach
Fatma is a 45 years old lady presented to Mawaleh health center complaining of
abdominal pain. This pain improves with eating and taking antacids. On examination she
has mild tenderness on the left upper abdominal area








What is the organ diseased in this patient?
Describe the gross anatomy of that organ?
List the functions of the stomach?
Describe the role of gastric acid in food digestion?
Define the term “ Tenderness” ?
What is the medical condition this patient has?
Why her symptoms improved with eating and antacids?
Why is the pain in the upper abdominal area?
Tutorial 5 (Urinary system)
At the end of the tutorial the student should be able to:
1. Describe the gross anatomy of the kidney and its blood supply
2. List the functions of the kidney
3. Describe the filtration membrane and what will happen if it is damaged
4. Understand why glucose should not appear in the urine
Rashid is a 60 years old man presented to FAMCO complaining of increasing tiredness
for the last 6 months. He has lost his appetite and feels constantly nauseated. For the last
6 months he lost about 8 kilograms. He also complained of generalized itching and
cramps. He has been hypertensive for 20 years and been on antihypertensive medication
for that time. On examination he is pale, high blood pressure and got mild pitting edema
on his ankles.
His investigations showed:
Haemoglobin2 g/dl
MCV fl
Sodium mmol/L
Pottasium mmol/L
Urea mmol/L
Creatinine µmol/L
Urine analysis
Blood film



Patient
Normal range
7.2
13.5-18
84
76-96
136
138-150
4.8
3.9—5.0 mmol/l
46.2
2.5 —7.5
769
40 - 110
+ protein +blood
normochromic normocytic anemia
List the functions of the kidney?
List the abnormalities in patient's investigations?
Why normally no blood or protein in the urine? Describe the filtration
membrane?
Page 18 of 26


Do you expect to find glucose in the urine? Why?
What is the cause of anemia in this patient?
Tutorial 6 (endocrine system)
By the end of this tutorial the student should be able to:
Case 1 objectives
1. Understand the difference between euthyroid, hypothyroid and hyperthyroid
states
2. Discuss the difference between primary and secondary dysfunction of a gland.
3. List the hormone secreted by hypothalamus, pituitary and thyroid glands.
4. Discuss the importance of negative feed back mechanism in hormone regulation
and its application in clinical diagnosis.
5. Discus the transport and mechanism of action of lipid-soluble hormones.
6. Discuss the mechanisms of interaction between hormones.
Salma is a 35 year old lady presented to her doctor with symptoms and sings suggestive
of hypothyroidism. Her doctor requested blood test for some hormones level to confirm
the diagnosis.




What does hypothyroidism mean?
What do we mean by primary and secondary dysfunction of a gland?
What are the hormones required to be tested in thyroid dysfunction?
If she has normal hypothalamus and pituitary gland, what do you think her
TSH level will be; in hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, Why?
Blood test confirmed that she has hypothyroidism. 100 microgram of thyroxine orally
was prescribed to her. She was asked to come after 3 months to repeat blood test.
Knowing that thyroxine is lipid-soluble hormone



How are lipid-soluble hormones transported in blood?
Where in the cell are the receptors located?
Why was she asked to come for repeated blood after 3 months and not few
hours?
In her next visit, she complained of palpitation. Her heart rate was found to be 120
b/min.

What is the explanation for her symptom?
Case 2 objectives
1. List the hormones secreted by adrenal gland.
2. Discuss the mechanism of circadian rhythm and its importance in hormone
secretion.
3. Understand the use of disturbance in circadian rhythm in clinical tests for some
endocrine diseases.
Page 19 of 26
Salem is 33 year old who presented to his doctor with symptoms and signs suggestive of
Cushing’s syndrome (cortisol hypersecretion). His doctor told hem that he need to admit
for some hormonal investigation.



From which gland is cortisol secreted?
Why does he need to be admitted?
What is circadian rhythm?
Tutorial 7 (Reproductive system)
By the end of this tutorial the student should be able to:
Case 1 objectives
1. Name the cells in the testes.
2. Briefly discuss the function of these cells.
3. List the major steps of spermatogenesis.
4. Briefly discuss the hormones involve in regulation of spermatogenesis.
32 years old man married to a normal 30 years old lady since 4 years without successful
conception. At age of 20, he had bilateral orchitis that led to atrophy of his testes.






Define Orchitis and atrophy?
What are the cells that could be damaged?
Briefly discuss the function of these cells?
List the major steps of spermatogenesis?
Briefly discuss the hormones involve in regulation of spermatogenesis?
What will be the deficiency in his semen analysis?
Case 2 objectives
1. List the phases of the female reproductive cycle.
2. Describe the changes in each these phases:
a. in ovaries?
b. in uterus
3. Briefly discuss hormonal control of these phases.
A young lady preparing for her wedding and would like to know more about the
physiology of her monthly menses.
Assuming that the duration of her monthly cycle is 28 days:



List the phases of the female reproductive cycle?
Describe the changes in each these phases:
 in ovaries?
 in uterus
Briefly discuss hormonal control of the these phases?
Case 3 objectives
1. Name the hormones produced during pregnancy and their origin.
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2. Briefly discuss their functions.
3. Identify the early hormone used for pregnancy test.
A 28 years old year married lady missed her period this month. Her urine tested positive
for a pregnancy test.






What is the substance that is checked in her urine?
What is the source of this hormone?
What function does it play during pregnancy?
What is the function of corpus leutum?
What are the other hormones produced during pregnancy?
Briefly discuss the major functions of these hormones?
5. ASSESSMENT

Written (MCQ) 30 questions in Week 6

Written (MCQ) 30 questions in Week 12

Lab Reports

Final examination
20%
20%
10%
50%
6. OUTCOME
1. Identify the normal function of the individual as an intact organism and of each of
its major organ systems.
2. Recognize that alteration in function of the body and its major organ systems
could result from various diseases and conditions.
3. Measure and record pulse.
4. Measure and record lung volumes and capacities.
5. Examine the sensory system.
7. RESOURCES
Recommended textbook
Human Anatomy and Physiology by Tortora and Grabowski
12B
Additional online course resource (®Moodle)
Group discussions will take place on moodle using forum tasks
13B
B. ORGANIZATION
1. MODULE COORDINATOR (S)
Dr Khamis AL-Hashmi
Dept of Physiology
Ground Floor Room 004
Ext # 3435
Email: kh@squ.edu.om
Page 21 of 26
2. TUTORS
Tutor
Department
Room
Number
Ext #
E mail
Prof Mohan
Physiology
0091
3524
mohand@squ.edu.om
Dr. Aleem
Physiology
0007
1185
aakhan@squ.edu.om
Dr. Crystal
Immunology
1024
1112
ckoh@squ.edu.om
Dr. Khamis
Physiology
0006
3435
kh@squ.edu.om
Dr. Hajar
Physiology
0100
1138
hajar@squ.edu.om
Prof Hassan
Physiology
0002
1109
mhassan@squ.edu.om
Dr. Khalil
Al-Farsi
Dr. Murtadha
Al-Khabori
Mohammed
Al Abri
Sami Al
Rawas
Claire
Nicolla
Hallas
Hematology
3396-C,
BLOCK 9
3396-A,
BLOCK 9
4891
khabori@squ.edu.om
4898
Kfarsi10@yahoo.com
4701
malabri@squ.edu.om
4704
farah@squ.edu.om
1150
ch372@squ.edu.om
Hematology
Clinical
physiology
Clinical
physiology
Behavioural
Medicine
3. LIST OF LECTURES
1. Homeostasis and control mechanisms I
2. Homeostasis and control mechanisms II
3. Body Fluid Compartments and fluid balance
4. Muscle physiology I
5. Muscle physiology II
6. Muscle physiology III
7. Components of blood and physiological properties of the red blood cells and
white blood cells
8. Basic principles of hemostasis
9. Introduction to Blood groups
10. Innate and acquired immunity I
11. Innate and acquired immunity II
12. Temperature regulation: heat and energy balance
13. Thermoregulation and abnormalities of heat regulation
14. Autonomic nervous system I
15. Autonomic nervous system II
16. Basic physics of atmosphere as required to be understood for the study of
respiratory system
17. Overall functional arrangement of the respiratory system
18. Concept of oxygen cascade and alveolar air composition
Page 22 of 26
19. Functional organization of the cardiovascular system
20. Properties of cardiac muscle
21. Introduction to cardiac cycle and cardiac output
22. Haemodynamic
23. Introduction to blood pressure
24. General principles of gastrointestinal system function
25. Secretory function of gastrointestinal system
26. Motility function of the gastrointestinal system
27. Digestive and absorptive functions of the gastrointestinal system
28. Urinary system: Glomerular fitration
29. Urinary system: Tubular functions
30. Urinary system: Regulation of body fluid osmolarity
31. Urinary system: Acid base balance
32. Introduction to endocrine physiology I
33. Introduction to endocrine physiology II
34. Introduction to endocrine physiology III
35. Introduction to the male reproductive physiology
36. Introduction to the female reproductive physiology
37. Introduction to the physiology of pregnancy and lactation
38. learning theory
39. Perception and emotion
40. Principles underling the brain functions Organization of nervous system
41. Motor control of movements
42. Cerebral cortical functions
43. Somatic sensation
44. Physiology of vision
45. Physiology of hearing
46. Physiology of taste and olfaction
4. PRACTICALS AND TUTORIALS
Practical 1: Muscle physiology I
Practical 2: Muscle physiology II
Practical 3: Muscle physiology III
Practical 4: Measurements of lung volumes and capacities
Practical 5: Circulation model
Practical 6: Pulse
Tutorial 1: Hematology
Tutorial 2: Immunology
Tutorial 3: Alimentary system
Tutorial 4: Renal system
Tutorial 5: Reproductive system
Tutorial 6: Endocrine nervous system
Tutorial 7: Central nervous system
Page 23 of 26
5. E LEARNING FACILITIES
Online Moodle course
6. TIME TABLE
Week
1.
Lectures
Homeostasis and control mechanisms I
Homeostasis and control mechanisms II
Body Fluid Compartments and fluid
balance
Labs
2.
Muscle Physiology I
Muscle physiology II
Muscle physiology III
3.
Haematoogy I
Haematology II
Haematology III
muscle
physiology lab I
4.
Immune system I
Immune system II
Autonomic nervous system I
muscle
physiology lab II
5.
Autonomic nervous system II
Body temperature regulation, PH, BMR I
Body temperature regulation, PH, BMR II
muscle
physiology lab
III
6.
Respiratory system I
Respiratory system II
Respiratory system III
Tutorials
Tutorial 1
(homeostasis)
Tutorial 2
(Immunology)
IST INCOURSE ASSESSMENT
7.
Cardiovascular system I
Cardiovascular system II
Cardiovascular system III
8.
Cardiovascular system IV
Cardiovascular system V
Alimentary system I
Practical 4
(Respiratory
system)
9.
Alimentary system II
Alimentary system III
Alimentary system IV
Practical 5
(Cardiovascular
system)
10.
Renal system I
Renal system II
Renal system III
Renal system IV
Endocrine system I
Practical 6
(Cardiovascular
system)
11.
Tutorial 3
(haematology)
Tutorial 4
(Alimentary
Page 24 of 26
12.
Endocrine system II
system)
Behavior medicine I
Behavior medicine II
Reproductive system I
Tutorial 5
(Renal system)
2ND INCOURSE ASSESSMENT
Reproductive system II
CNS1
CNSII
CNSII
Tutorial 6
(Endocrine
system)
14.
CNSIII
CNSIV
CNSV
Tutorial 7
(Reproductive
system)
15.
16.
Final exam
13.
Lecture/Lab breakdown:
Homeostasis and control mechanisms…………………………..2 lectures
Body fluid compartments and fluid balance……………………...1 lecture
Muscle physiology …………………………………………3 lectures/ 3 practicals
Haematology ……………………………………………………3 lectures/ 1 tutorial
Immune system ………………………………………………..….2 lectures/ 1 tutorial
Body temperature regulation…………………………………….2 lectures
Autonomic nervous system …………………………………….2 lectures
Respiratory system …………………………………………….3 lectures/1 practical
Cardiovascular system ………………………………… ……….5 lectures/2 practical
Alimentary system ………………………………………………4 lectures/ 1 tutorial
Renal system ………...…………………………………………..4 lectures/ 1 tutorial
Reproductive system ……………………………………………..3 lectures/1 tutorial
Endocrine system …………………………………………………2 lectures/1 tutorial
Behavioral medicine……………………………………………….2 lecture
Central nervous system …………….………… ………….……..5 lectures/ 2 tutorial
U
C. LOGISTICS
1. STUDENT’S LIST
To be completed
2. GROUP ALLOCATIONS
To be completed
3. TEACHING LOCATIONS
Practicals :
Physiology lab/2128
Lectures :
Medical lecture theatre (MLT)
U
U
U
Page 25 of 26
U
U
Tutorials :
Exams :
U
U
Tutorial rooms (2nd floor)
Annex building computer rooms
U
4. ATTENDANCE REGULATION
Students must attend all sessions of the module. Absenteeism for 10% of the contact
hours will attract a warning, whilst 20% attracts barring from final examination and
consequent grade F on the students transcript.
Page 26 of 26