EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
“Man's characteristic privilege is
that the bond he accepts is not
physical but moral; that is,
social. He is governed not by a
material environment brutally
imposed on him, but by a
conscience superior to his own,
the superiority of which he feels.
Because the greater, better part
of his existence transcends the
body, he escapes the body's
yoke, but is subject to that of
society.”
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile
_Durkheim.jpg
LIFE AND CHILDHOOD
Life and childhood
Born in Lorraine April 15, 1858
 Son of a prominent Rabbi
 Raised in strict Jewish fashion
 Early schooling in a rabbinical school
 Decided not to become a rabbi
 Eventually became agnostic
 Schooled in many prestigious schools

 College
d'Epinal
 Lycee Louis-Le-Grand in Paris
 Ecole Normale Superieure
EARLY INFLUENCES
Early Influences
 Charles
Renouvier-philosopher
 Emile Boutoux-philosopher
 Numas-Denis Fustel de Coulanges-historian
Rebelled against the generlalized education
 Preferred
training in scientific methods and moral
principles
"The metaphysician"
EARLY ADULTHOOD
Became an instructor of philosophy at the
University of Bordeaux in 1887
 Offered
the first course in social science in a
French university.
 Taught teaching classes to educators and believed
in the morality of education
Married Louise Dreyfus
 Two
children Marie & Andre
PUBLISHED WORKS

The Division of Labor in Society
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The Rules of Sociological Method
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Formalization of the frameworks from The Division of Labor
Le Suicide
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Unity and solidarity
Modern society capable in principle of rational integration while
providing an environment for individual autonomy
First application of the scientific method to study social phenomena
Suicide is an individual and antisocial act, which can be understood
sociologically
Sociology is capable of understanding the rates of suicide and the
factors which help determine such rates
Full professorship at Bordeaux
L’ANEE SOCIOLOGIQUE
L'Annee Sociologique
First social science journal in France
 Led to the Durkheimian approach to sociology

Individual and Collective Representations

Paper outlining the "manifesto" for the Durkheimian
School
The Elementary Forms of Religious Life
Society could not exist independently of religious forms
of sentiment and action
 The basis of religion lies in a social basis

LATER ADULTHOOD
Later Adulthood
 Full
professorship at the Sorbonne in 1902.
 Education chair in the Science of Education
 Later
renamed by Durkheim the Science of Education
and Sociology
 Andre
Durkheim, who was Emile's son and bright
linguist was killed in April 1916 during WWI. Emile
Durkheim never recovered and suffered a stroke,
dying a year later on November 15, 1917
THE FRENCH TRADITION

Rousseau

Volante Generale (general will) influenced Durkheim's idea of "solidarity"
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Solidarity has body (organic component) and an attitude/sentiment (feeling of
belonging) component. Functionalism and social psychological effect
"Man is himself only in and through society. If man were not a part of society, he
would be an animal like the rest"
Durkheim disagreed with Rousseau on the thought that the political
state was the essence of society. Durkheim believed that politics were
borne of many influences on man
Montesquieu


Interrelatedness of social phenomena. The connectedness of social and
cultural phenomena
Belief that elements of society must be understood in context rather
than by themselves

Law and morality, trade, social structure, culture, religion etc…
THE FRENCH TRADITION

Renouvier

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
Rationalism that believed in a scientific approach to socialness and
morality while maintaining the idea of individual autonomy
Durkheim disagreed with Renouvier's rejection of historical laws and
society
Agreed with ethical and moral considerations are a central role in
philosophy
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That there is a need for science of ethics
Philosophy should guide social action
Moral unity
Gabriel Tarde
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"Imitation"
Aggregater of individuals in action and human behavior was imitated at
a social level from the actions of leaders.
Durkheim instead believed that society is a reality and behavior must be
structurally based instead of social-psychological
THE FRENCH TRADITION

Saint-Simon
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Ideas on socialistm
Durkheim states "for all of us, all that is essential in socialist doctrine is found in the philosophy
of Saint-Simon"
Influenced Durkheim's belief in the ability to create an organic order of peace and stability by
instituting the proper moral ideas
Positivism (Saint-Simon being more consistent with positivism than Comte)
Comte
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Recognized the division of labor as a source of solidarity.
Durkheim believed in the division of labor as a way of binding people together and creating
dependency
"Consensus" influenced Durkheim's notion of "collective conscience"
Durkheim disagreed with Comtes "theological" ideas or metaphysics
Did not like Comte's conception of social order with conservative values
Durkheim advocated a distinction between cosmic and secular order, believing in secular order
as the solution
Durkheim didn't view Comte as a sociologist but a philosopher
THE ENGLISH LIBERAL TRADITION

The English Liberal Tradition
 Major
liberal themes included:
 Constitutional
regulation and balance of powers
 Parliamentary government
 Economic individualism
 Market economy
 Minimal government
THE ENGLISH TRADITION

Herbert Spencer

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Highly influential on Durkheim's Division of Labor
Praised Spencer's classification of society as an organic or "natural" entity
Durkheim's evolutionary views come from Spencer
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Durkheim's view that evolution is a movement from systems of mechanical to systems of
organic solidarity (this is analogous to Spencer's movement from incoherent homogeneity
to coherent heterogeneity )
Durkheim did not view Spencer as a sociologist but as a philosopher
Durkheim was not impressed by Spencer's particular social theories, especially
the individualistic premises because Durkheim did not believe in self-interest
maintaining social order
Also believed that individuals property should reflect their contributions to
society and not inheritance
Durkheim created a new doctrine that synthesized the needs of the working
class but upheld the tradition work ethic idealism of the democratic middle class
GERMAN IDEALISM

German Idealism
 Durkheim
published numerous critical reviews of
German thinkers such as:
 Simmel
 Schaffle
 Gumplowicz
 Toennies

In particular Toennies Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft is an
influence on Durkheim's distinction between organic and
mechanical societies
GERMAN IDEALISM
Immanuel Kant
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Once expanded rationalism then rejected the concept of
ultimate rationalism
Durkheim was most influenced by Kant's commitment to the
examination of moral duty
Durkheim's sociological outlook was an extension of Kant's
notion of duty and moral obligation.
"everything which is the source of solidarity is moral,
everything which forces man to take account of other men is
moral, everything which forces him to regulate his conduct
through something other than the surviving of his ego is
moral, and morality is as solid as these ties are numerous
and strong"
GERMAN IDEALISM
Wilhelm Wundt
Father of experimental psychology
 Durkheim was impressed by Wundt's commitment to
scientific methodology and the research conducted at
his famous laboratory in Leipzig
 Agreed with Wundt's "Volkseele" (the group soul) which
Durkheim substituted for "Volksgeist" This view is
similar to the concept of collective conscience
 Also believed in Wundt's explanation that moral
phenomena must be treated as "facts of social
existence"

 Social
facts as "things"
CONCEPTS & CONTRIBUTIONS
Labeled as
 “Father
of Functionalism”
 “Father of French Sociology”
 “Founder of Modern Sociology”
 First Full Professor of Sociology
THE DIVISION IN LABOR/SOLIDARITY
Mechanical Solidarity
 Primitive
society which has no differentiated social
structure
 No division of labor
Organic Solidarity
 Modern
society arises from the difference in the
economic and social structure.
 High division and specialized labor
DIVISION IN LABOR/SOLIDARITY
Defined as the bond between all individuals
within a society
 As
society become more technologically advanced
there has to be more specialization and increased
division in labor
 This specialization causes a shift in the way people
relate to each other.
DIVISION IN LABOR/SOLIDARITY
2 types of Solidarity
 Mechanical
Solidarity - Primitive societies
 Similarities
 Organic
and generalisms
Solidarity - Modern societies
 Specialization
of people
 A need for the services of others
Social Implications of Specialization
 Values
and norms change and subcultures emerge
COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE
“The totality of beliefs and sentiments common
to average citizens of the same society forms a
determinate system which has its own life; one
may call the collective or common conscience.”
COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE
Primitive societies
 Laws
are harsh, intense, rigid, and universally
shared.
 Law is repressive and the deviant is severally
punished
Modern societies
 Laws
are less harsh, less punitive, less intensely
felt, and less shared.
 Punishment is enforced by issuing fines
COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE
Agents of socialization of norms/moral facts
 Institutions
teach norms
 Family
 Religion
 Occupation
The more division in labor, the more individualism
becomes the moral compass of modern society
METHODOLOGY
Sociology grew from philosophy and must
separate itself and become a science.
Social Phenomenon should be studied
empirically using the scientific method.
STUDY OF SUICIDE (1897)
Provided an example of a sociology study that
emphasized social facts rather than individual
experiences.
Rates of suicide varied from country to country
and there appeared to be a different
“predisposition to suicide” in different societies.
STUDY OF SUICIDE (1897)
Four types of suicide

Egoistic
 Low
degree of integration
 Society has excessive individualism, separation from society
and the individual

Altruistic
 High
degree of integration
 Society forces people into killing themselves, lack of
individualism and duty to country

Anomic
 Low
regulation
 Society is faced with economic disaster, despair or changing
social status

Fatalistic – High regulation and external constraints
RELIGION
Nothing more than collective representations of
the overwhelming power of society.
Religion is highly social and serves as a bonding
function and identification for the individuals
within a society.
Religion provides for:
 Meaning
in life
 Authority figures
 Reinforces the morals and social norms
MORALITY
Moral ideas and sentiments are to be preserved
but historical bonds with religion must be broken.
Educational institutions and wider society should
forge and create a new sense of morality that
emphasizes rights, privileges, and duties
SOCIALISM
Durkheim opposed socialism and tried to
construct a model of society that was in
opposition to Marx.
Even though Durkheim opposes socialism he
believes that people who acquire too much
wealth have a greater likelihood of becoming
corrupt, which is a function of socialism.
FUNCTIONALISM

Functionalist perspective views society as a
sum total of the large number of persons,
groups, organizations and social institutions.

Society is a system, and its parts contribute to
its stability and continued existence.

Parts of the society are interconnected and try
to meet the demands of each of the parts.
CRIME
Durkheim’s view of crime was that it serves as a
function to help unite society's' members.
 A action does not shock the conscience collective
because it is a crime but the action is a crime
because it shocks the conscience collective.
 Punishment of violators reminds society as a
whole to not risk deviating from the law.
 Punishment also reaffirms the sense of morality
within a society.

CRIME
Crime and Law
A
society of Mechanical Solidarity is characterized
by repressive law and crime would be punished
severely.
 A society of Organic Solidarity is characterized by
restitutive law or trying to reintegrate the criminal
back into society after treatment.
RELEVANCY
Attempted to mold events to put his principles
into practice.
 He founded and edited “L’Annee Sociologique”
a professional sociological periodical.
 He provided the basic schematic for structural
and functional analysis in sociology, and
insisted on the usage of empirical methodology,
so that sociology could accurately claim itself
as a science.

RELEVANCY
Durkheim hoped that scientific sociology would
help create a moral re-education in the Third
Republic and at the same time replace religion as
the source of morality within a secular morality.
 He became the secretary of the Committee for the
Publication of studies and documents on the war,
publishing several pamphlets attacking panGermanism, to help France in WWI.
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RELEVANCY


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He lost his son Andre, who had followed his father to
Ecole Normale to pursue a promising career as a
sociological linguist. The death hit him hard and was
able to write very little afterwards and eventually died at
the age of 59.
Durkhiem’s works and thoughts continued to be
relevant and significant in the third millennium.
Rober Merton expanded Durkheim’s functional
approach through his manifest and latent functions,
utilizing the term dysfunctional as it applies to social
systems and the creation of Anomie Theory.
RELEVANCY
As initially developed by Durkheim the concept
of anomie refers to a condition of relative
normlessness, in a society or group.
 The core of Durkheim’s theory lies with the
concept of social fact, especially with such
nonmaterial social facts as the collective
conscience, collective representations and
social currents.

RELEVANCY
Durkheim was very concerned with what he
perceived as the lack of morality in French society,
but its safe to say that in all societies today and in
the future we will wrestle with the issue of
morality.
 “Cult of Personality”- taking over for religion.
 Crime serves a functional role in society because it
helps to promote social change when a violation of
a law caused such a public outrage that demands
for change occurred. (Example, Rosa Parks)

RELEVANCY

It can be argued that Durkheim envisioned
globalization, “Global Solidarity.”

Emile Durkheim was and remains one of the
greatest social thinkers of all time and his
works will remain relevant well into the third
millennium.