Outline the significant political and military events in Rome prior to Caesar’s rise to
prominence. (10 Marks)
Optimates vs Populares





Ongoing
Define them
Optimates often ‘abused’ populares
Constant conflict  division
Decay of Rep System
Sulla and Marius






Separate political alignments
Over command in Mithridates
Civil War 88-87BC
Sulla was victorious  dictator
Proscriptions  less power of tribunes, more division
PA Brunt “Achieved little besides adding to the sum of human history. Social
discontents continued and the Senate remained indifferent to the distress of the
poor”
Changing Social Alliances





As a result of Sulla and Marius
From Senate to Generals
Put strain on Rome
Continuous battles
Adrian Goldsworthy “The rise of private armies was probably the most important
problem besetting the Republic with which the Senate failed to deal with”
Expansion of Rome






As a result of Generals
Ongoing expansion
More citizens
Strain on resources
Public disorder
Slave revolts
Describe Julius Caesar’s role in the First Triumvirate. (10 Marks)
Instigator





He approached the men
Reason: consulship + power
Each man faced problems with Senate
Plutarch “Caesar brought these men together, making them friends instead of
enemies and used their united power to strengthen himself”
Pompey Prestige + Crassus Wealth
His Responsibilities




When he gained consulship
Lex agaria  Pompey’s land bill for his Veterans
Tax rebate on farming land lost  Crassus
The two would help him gain proconsular Gaul
Mediator





Both men had history
Both fulfilled ambitions  hostility
Caesar needed the Triumvirate
Organised Conference of Luca 56BC
Acted as a mediator between the men
Manipulator




Seen as manipulator; most powerful
After Luca  consulship 55BC  extension in Gaul
Used Pompey to protect in Rome
Plutarch “The whole of the Roman Empire into one man’s hands”
Outline the political steps Caesar took in his rise to prominence, culminating with his
appointment as dictator for life. (10 Marks)
Early Years




Marriage at 16  Rich family
Sulla’s proscriptions
Asia with Governor Thermus
Corona Civicum
Quaestor






In 69BC
Public official
Treasury + Financial Affairs of the State, Armies and Officers
Min age 30
Auto Senate
Caesar: beginning of Journey
Curule Aedile






In 66BC
Maintenance of public buildings
Public festivals
2 elected
Caesar: lavish spending + Marius Statues
Suetonius “In his aedileship he adorned the Capitol”
Pontifex Maximus





In 63BC
Chief Priest of Rome
Highest Religious Position
Access to funds
Could not touch metal (war)
Praetor + Pro Praetor





In 62 BC
Praetor is judge/magistrate  deals with the law
Could field an army in emergency
Pro Praetor  Spain
In charge of the maintenance of the area
Consul + Pro Consul







First Triumvirate  consulship 59BC
Plutarch “The Whole of the Roman Empire into One man’s hands”
Was highest public office
2 elected each year, one year term
Could pass legislations
Caesar  provided him with prestige
Proconsul  Gaul
Dictatorship




After victory in Civil War with Pompey in 48BC
Made dictator for one year in 47BC
Made consul for 10 years in 46BC
Made dictator for life in 45BC
Contrast the relationship Caesar had with his army with the relationship he had with the
senate. (10-15 Marks).
Healthy with Troops





Gained their loyalty and admiration
Personal relationship
Plutarch “His ability to secure the affection of his men and to get the best out of them
was remarkable”
Eat, slept and fought alongside his troops
Suetonius “He always led his army, more often on foot than in the saddle, went
bareheaded in sun and rain alike”
Caesar was Master Tactician







They trusted and Respected Caesar
Viewed as brave and heroic leader
Extra loyalty + bounty
Suetonius “He always addressed his soldiers with not my men but comrades...he fixed
the daily pay at double what is had been occasionally”
Willing to fight to the death
Equal and Fair Treatment
Suetonius “treated them with equal severity and indulgence”
Enemy of the Senate




Aligned with plebeians
Direct rival
Rise to power  threat
Cicero “some lacked courage, others the opportunity. None lacked the will”
Disrespect and Actions





Ignored Senate traditions
Excessive spending in aedileship  annoyed Senate
Marius statues  deeply angered, wished to punish
Population protected him
Illegal legislations  wanted to kill him
Jealousy




Caesar was motivated, ambitious and successful
Drew envy from Senate
Threatened by Caesar
Plutarch “What made Caesar hated has his ambition to be King”
In Favour with Senate





However did have some support
Pompey and Crassus
Tribunes
Mark Antony
Dictatorship
Discuss the significant personal relationships that Caesar had throughout his career. (10 – 15
Marks).
Cornelia



First wife at 16
Married for rich family
Maintained marriage  love ?
Julia




Daughter
Married Pompey
Strengthened the Triumvirate
Death  fall of Triumvirate
First Triumvirate


Secret political alliance
Rights and responsibilities
Crassus:



Early in Career, during aedileship
Enormous wealth
Funded his campaigns
Pompey:
o




 Later in career, just before Consulship
 Used for his influence and power
Plutarch “the first disaster and the worst had not been the quarrel and split
between Caesar and Pompey but the friendship and harmony that existed
between them”
Used the men to gain consulship
During command in Gaul  protect interests
Extension on Command
Plutarch “Put the whole of the Roman Empire into one man’s hands”
Brutus






Most detrimental
With Pompey in Civil War
Showed Clemancia Twice
Viewed as his protige
Plotted to kill Caesar
If only
Mark Antony


One of few men loyal to Caesar
Staff in Gaul





Provided Support for Caesar in Senate when in Gaul
Magisterer Equitum in Civil War
In dictatorship, was his rep in Rome
Considered one of Caesar’s only true friends
Mark Antony “He was my friend, faithful and just to me”
Explain the key influences on Julius Caesar up to 60BC. (15 Marks).
Early Life




Death of his Father
Married Cornelia  Rich Family
Sulla’s proscriptions
Defiance  test of character
Asia + Education







Protection from Sulla
Joined Governor Thermus
Was successful: Corona Civica
Educated as lawyer
Orator Skills
Cicero “ Do you know of any man who can speak better than Caesar”
Knowledge of legal system
Qauestor




In 68BC
Public Office  Financial Obligations
Seat in the Senate
Beginning/stepping stones
Curule Aedile






In 65BC
Public care + festivals
Lavish and excessive spending  Popularity
Major debts  Crassus
Future Support
Suetonius “In his aedileship he adorned the capitol”
Pontifex Maximus





Chief Priest of Rome
Access to funds  Pay off Debts
If not, was screwed
Could not touch metal  short term
Enabled enhancement of public image
Praetor + Pro Praetor







In 62BC  elected Praetor
Was like a Judge
In 61 BC  Pro Praetor of Spain
Turning Point
Alexander the Great Statue
Brought order to Spain
Enhanced reputation as capable military commander
Ongoing Conflict with the Optimates




Politically aligned with the Plebeians
Throughout this time  rival
Statues of Marius
Plutarch “What made Caesar hated was his passion to be King”
Assess the significance of the Gallic campaigns to Caesar’s rise to prominence. (15 Marks).
Powerful and Loyal Army





Genuine admiration and respect for Caesar
Plutarch “Caesar’s army yearned for him...the forces in Gaul were ready to serve
him”
Experienced and Unified Army
Allowed victory in Civil War
Plutarch “His ability to secure the affection of his men and get the best out of them
was remarkable”
Strong Relationship with Common People






Enhanced reputation
Recorded his progress
Exaggerated his feats  Propaganda
Extended Clientele
‘Protector of Gaul’
Ensured popularity when he returned
Avoid Punishment for Legislations



During his 59BC consulship
He was in office  avoid persecution
Otherwise DEATH
Bounty





Collected from villages
Able to repay debts + extra
Payed soldiers extra  loyalty
Suetonius “he fixed the daily pay at double what is had been occasionally”
Buy political support
Growing Reputation




Like no other
Extra dimension to his career
Experience in War  Civil War
Even some Senators
Cursus Honorum





Was stepping stones
Gained knowledge, connections, support, experience
Aedile  Reputation
Pontifex  Debts
W/O steps  no Gaul
First Triumvirate

Secret coalition






Access to new resources
Crassus: Wealth
Pompey: Prestige
Preserved interest/protection
Plutarch “Placed the Whole Roman Empire into one man’s hands”
Extension in Gaul
Explain how various actions by Caesar got him out of favour with Roman aristocracy. (15
Marks).
Political Alignment




With People  Gained popularity
Rival of Senate
Sour Relationship
Cicero “Some didn’t know the plot. Some lack courage, others the opportunity, none
lacked the will”
His actions








Not welcomed in the Senate in 68BC
Lack of respect for traditions
Excessive spending in aedileship  weary and annoyed
Status of Marius  greatly angered
Public support protection
Illegal legislations  Wanted punishment
Abuse of power, detrimental
However, showed some respect (cursus honorum)
Jealousy






Motivated, ambitious and successful
Threatened by Caesar  tried to stop him
Plutarch “What made Caesar hated was his passion to be King”
Compounded over time
Was threat to Republican system
Just by progress  out of favour
Rapid Rise





Cursus Honorum
Weary of his potential
First Triumvirate  Fear
Senate felt weakened
Scullard “By uncompromising refusal to meet the demands of Pompey, Caesar and
Crassus the Senate naturally drove them into each other’s arms”
Success in Gaul




Fear to aristocrats
They plotted against him
Power army  Fear
Increasingly conscious
Refusal to Forfeit




After success in Gaul
Caesar tried compromise
Confirmed Caesar as enemy
Caesar “the Die is cast”, Sparked Civil War
Discuss the Nature of Julius Caesar’s Reforms as Dictator (15 Marks)
Italy and the Outer Empire





The Lex Julia Municipalis enfranchised all Italian towns  increased their loyalty to
Caesar and increased stability within the Empire
Mandated the building of Roman towns in Procinces  extended Rome
Changes the provincial tax system  reduced corruption and increased loyalty to
Caesar. Allowed the provinces to ‘share the power and wealth’
Granted citizenship to all in Cisalpine and Transpadene Gaul and other prvinces 
addressed the resentment of Italian allies, secured their support for Roman rule and
enhanced the province’s status
Founded around 20 overseas colonies  settled problems of overpopulation in Rome,
provided employment, increased Rome’s influence in Europe
Senate and Magistrates


Increased the number of annual magistracies, half would be elected and half would
be nominated by Caesar  increased opportunity for service in Rome and abroad,
relieved tension in Roman political life. Broke the power of Senatorial cliques.
Increased the number of Senators by 900, included Italians and other provincial
clients  Senators from Gaul and Spain gave the Senate’s edicts significance
beyond Italy
Judiciary


Ensured equal number of Senators and Equestrians  created more representative
and stable court system
Penalties for severe crimes were made more severe  wealthy men had been able
to escape with exile, Caesar made them more accountable
Economic Reforms


Creditors had to accept land as its pre war value in settlement of debts  lenders
were assured of some (if not all) their loans and profits.
He issued coins in his own image  images and legends were ideal means of
propaganda for Caesar’s regime
Public Works



He used personal wealth to rebuild and build new public structures in the Forum 
created Rome’s first ‘imperial’ forum, the Julian Forum. Relieved overcrowding in the
old Forum, established himself as a ‘legend’
Planned large library and commissioned scholars  higher education in Rome
Planned to drain city marshes, extend harbours, planned to build highways  the
scope of these works demonstrated Caesar’s genuine statesmanship
Roman Masses


Legislated that at least 1/3 of labourers on large estates had to be freedmen and not
slaves  reduced incentive to idleness and ensured jobs for poor, free men
Most of remaining ‘public land’ in Italy was broken up to create small farms  slowed
the drain of landless men into Rome
To what extent was Julius Caesar a successful General? (15 Marks)
Early Career (time in the East)



Joined Governor Thermus in Asia
Was successful: Corona Civica
Displayed great bravery and intelligence for young man
Pro-Praetor Spain



In 61 BC  Pro Praetor of Spain
Brought order to Spain; was previously troubled region
Enhanced reputation as capable military commander
Gaul - Relationship with Troops





Gained their loyalty and admiration
Personal relationship
Plutarch “His ability to secure the affection of his men and to get the best out of them
was remarkable”
Eat, spelt and fought alongside his troops
Suetonius “He always led his army, more often on foot than in the saddle, went
bareheaded in sun and rain alike”
Gaul – Master Tactician








Greatly outnumbered, outsized  still achieved success
Attacked tribes individually such as Hellveti tribe  would kill off Gauls slowly
Building bridge across the Rhine in 10 days  unprecedented
Vercingetorix ‘Scorched Earth Policy’  reversed it one Vercingetorix, depleted the
Gaul’s resources, forced him to retreat to Alesia
Surrounded Vercingetorix  cut off his supplies
During Battle of Alesia 52BC was attacked from both sides AND outnumbered 
called in for cavalry to flank opposition, ensured defeat
Vercingetorix surrendered to Caesar  ultimate compliment to Caesar’s abilities as a
General
Jordanes “Then came Caesar... who conquered all kingdoms and even seized islands
beyond our world.”
Civil War





Civil War in 49BC with Pompey
Was outnumbered almost 3 to 1 BUT once again was successful
His forces had been fighting for almost 10 years  tired but he was still able to success
Forced Pompey to retreat to Egypt  knew he could not defeat Caesar
Suetonius “Caesar was a most skillful swordsman and horseman, and showed
surprising powers of endurance”
Assess the Impact of Julius Caesar on Rome (15 Marks)
First Triumvirate







Established in 59BC; between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus
Influence the Fall of the Roman Republic; gave Caesar a great deal of power and
support, which Caesar would later use to overthrow the Roman Senate.
Plutarch “the first disaster and the worst had been, not the quarrel and split between
Caesar and Pompey, but the friendship and harmony that had existed between
them”
Was the major reason for the Civil Was with Pompey
Scullard “Its formation was a turning point in the history of the Free State and it was, as
both Cicero and Cato recognised, the ultimate origin of the Civil War of 49BC”.
Destabilised the Roman Senate and Political system, paved the way for Octavius
(Augustus) to continue Caesar’s efforts and convert the Roman Republic into the
Roman Empire.
Heinrich Glezer’s “on the strength of an authority based solely on the loyalty of his
soldiers, was reaching for the government of the Empire"
Consulship



In 59BC
Introduced illegal legislations  caused greater political rivalry
Overpowered Bibulus  angered Senate/Optimates
Gaul





Was proconsulship in 58BC
Provided him with powerful and loyal army  ensure success in Civil War
Plutarch “Caesar’s army yearned for him...the forces in Gaul were ready to serve
him”
Caesar gained popularity  political division in society
In defeating the Gauls, he established a large province in Europe  expanded
Empire
Civil War



With Pompey in 49BC
Further split in Rome  public disorder
Victory  changed the future direction of Rome (Republic or Empire)
Dictatorship





Returned from Civil War, made Dictator in 48BC
Sparked the beginning of the Roman Empire
Granted citizenship to Provinces  expanded Empire
Increased the number of annual magistracies  increased opportunity for service in
Rome and abroad, relieved tension in Roman political life. Broke the power of
Senatorial cliques.
Increased the number of Senators by 900, included Italians and other provincial
clients  Senators from Gaul and Spain gave the Senate’s edicts significance
beyond Italy


Reduced the power of the Optimates/Roman aristocrats  more equality BUT also
resentment of Senators
Plutarch “What made Caesar hated was his passion to be King”
Death




At a Senate meeting in Pompey’s theatre on March 15, 44BC (The Ides of March)
Caesar was stabbed to death
Some of the conspirators were friends/allies of Caesar, who thought they were doing
what was best for the Republic
Their greatest mistake was thinking that this would somehow restore the ways of the
old Republic, yet they had no plan or strategy of how this would happen
Instead, Caesar’s death was a bigger blow to the Republic as it left Rome in a state
of divide, riot and turbulence, resulting in a further 13 years of Civil War
Analyse the motives for the Assassination of Julius Caesar (15 Marks)
Jealousy




Caesar had earned and acquired the most lavish honours ever bestowed upon a
Roman citizen such as his victories became a national holidays, granted the title of
‘Impraetor’ as a family name
Senator’s jealous of his ambitions
Caesar’s immense ambition and his contempt for Republican traditions drive his
opponents to desperate measures
Cicero “Some didn’t know the plot. Some lack courage, others the opportunity, none
lacked the will”
Enlarged the Senate & Increased the number of officials




Caesar increased the number of annual magistracies  Broke the power of
Senatorial cliques
Increased the number of Senators by 900, included Italians and other provincial
clients  The Optimates no longer had extensive control
Ensured equal number of Senators and Equestrians Judges  Angered Optimates
Penalties for severe crimes were made more severe  wealthy men had been able
to escape with exile, Caesar made them more accountable. Angered Optimates
Promoted his own supporters



Half of the Magistrates elected were by Caesar  many Senators felt this was unfair
and an abuse of Power
The Senate tradition was being lost  angered ‘Traditionalists’
Caesar’s supporters had helped to create the very resentment that could lead to his
murder. Caesar seemed largely indifferent to these honours, but never refused them
Desire to Be King






Required senators to swear an oath of allegiance to him personally (instead of to
Rome)
Was unprecedented, against Senatorial traditions
Many viewed this as an abuse of Power
Fear grew that he would become an absolute King
At the feast of Lupercal in February, 44BC, Mark Antony offered Caesar a crown
Plutarch “What made Caesar hated was his passion to be King”
Return to ‘Old Republic’




Brutus & other believed by killing Caesar  return to old
Wanted to reform his legislations
Their greatest mistake was thinking that this would somehow restore the ways of the
old Republic, yet they had no plan or strategy of how this would happen
Instead, Caesar’s death was a bigger blow to the Republic as it left Rome in a state
of divide, riot and turbulence, resulting in a further 13 years of Civil War