I. Types of reproduction

A. Asexual Reproduction
1. Only 1 parent
2. Example: Animalia (Porifera, Cnidaria,
Platyhelminthes, Annelida), Plantae,
Fungi, Monera, Protista

•
Hydrozoa and scyphozoa typically reproduce by budding asexually
.

3. Advantages of Asexual
Reproduction

4. Disadvantages to Asexual a. Produces identical offspring b. Eliminates variation c. Makes species susceptible to extinction.

B. Sexual Reproduction
• 1. 2 parents produce offspring that have unique combos of genes inherited from the gametes of the parents

2. disadvantages of sexual repro a. Mate appeasement required.
b. Timing of sperm placement is important.
c. Slower than asexual (normally)

3. Advantages to Sexual
Reproduction

Sexual Reproduction +/-
• Advantages
– VARIETY
• Disadvantages
– Timing
– Mate appeasement
– slower

C. Parthenogenesis-an unusual case
1. Reproduction w/ one type of sex cell.
2. Haploid Eggs develop w/out fertilization
3. Ex. Brahminy Blind Snake is parthenogenic and has only sterile females.
4. Turkey, Daphnia, Whiptail lizards
Whiptail lizard

II. Fertilization– union of sperm & egg
A. External Fert – fertilization of egg outside of the female’s body

1. External fertilization advantages & disadvantages a. + less mate appeasement b. requires large volumes of gametes c. require large numbers of offspring

External fertilizers must produce large numbers of eggs
.

Many young are produced to ensure the survival of a few

Mating ball formed as multiple males amplex on one female.
Who’s yo’ Daddy?

Water borne eggs are exposed to chemicals in the water
(these mutants are from
Minnesota)

B. Internal Fertilization – sperm fertilizes egg inside female
1. advantages & disadvantages a.(-) Mate appeasement and attraction is required b. (+) produces smaller number of offspring c. (-) must raise offspring

1. Sperm are incapable of penetrating an oocyte unless they are capacitated

2. Capacitation: the process by which the acrosomal region of a sperm becomes weakened
3. This allows hydrolytic enzymes to be released from the sperm near the oocyte

a. Polyspermy is prevented in humans by:

1). Fast block to polyspermy a) Depolarization of the membrane b) Prevents other sperm from fusing with oocyte membrane

2). Slow block to polyspermy a) Releases cortical granules and forms fertilization membrane b) Detaches all sperm in contact with the oocyte membrane

5. What about sperm from other species?
• a. special receptor proteins on egg that recognize proteins on the sperm ---
– 1. that means it’s species specific!

D. Gametogenesis
• 1. production of gametes

2. Spermatogenesis a) occurs from Puberty until death!
b) Seminiferous tubules ~ location c) Primordial germ cells (2N)~ differentiate into….
d) Spermatogonia (2N) ~ sperm precursor e) divide Repeated through mitosis into….
f) Primary spermatocytes (2N) g) start meiosis (1st meiotic division) h) produces 2 Secondary spermatocytes (2N) i) 2nd meiotic division j) produces 4 Spermatids (1N)~ k) Sertoli cells provide nourishment as they mature into… l) Sperm cells (1N)

m. spermatogenesis is controlled by hormones
1) LH stimulates testes to produces testosterone…
2) FSH stimulates Sertolli cells to promote the dev of sperm
3) hormone & gamete production are constant

3. Oogenesis a) begins during female’s embryonic development b) Ovaries - location c) fetal Primordial germ cells (2N) called oogonia d) form Primary oocytes (2N) – each oocyte has an envelop of “caretaking” cells called a follicle e) Between birth & puberty oocytes suspended in prophase I of meiosis

f) at Puberty FSH triggers completion of meiosis I with unequal cytokinesis – this makes sure that the developing embryo (later) has enough organelles …. for survival g) Secondary oocyte (1N) -with most of the cytoplasm is formed & the other is a polar body (ultimately disintegrates) h) ovulation allows oocyte to be released from ovary i) Meiosis II begins when stimulated by fertilization j) an Ovum (1N) & 2nd polar body are formed (polar body disintegrates)

E. Female Reproductive Cycle
Follicular Phase
1. Pituitary releases FSH & LH (neg. feedback – low levels of estrogen & progesterone cause pit to secrete FSH –controlled by hypothalamus)
2. FSH stimulates development of follicle in ovary
3. follicle secretes estrogen
Ovulation Phase
4. ↑ levels of estrogen (pos feedback) cause pit to release LH which triggers ovulation

Luteal Phase
5. what’s left over of the follicle is called the corpus luteum – it secretes Estrogen & Progesterone
6. E & P cause endometrium (lining of uterus) to thicken
7. high levels of E & P cause pituitary to stop producing
FSH & LH (neg feedback) – termination of cycle
8. no FSH & LH causes corpus luteum to deteriorate– so no E & P
9. No E & P means endometrium disintegrates & is sloughed off during menstruation

If egg is fertilized & implanted
10. if embryo implants it secretes HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) that keeps the corpus luteum alive functional (making E & P) a. if no HCG – no E & P & menstruation would begin resulting in spontaneous abortion
** pregnancy tests check for HCG in urine!
11. later HCG is replaced by P produced by placenta so, technically the embryo maintains the pregnancy

III. Embryonic development
A. similar processes occur in most animals

1. fertilization – combo of sperm & egg a. developing organism now called a zygote
2. cleavage – zygote undergoes rapid cell division w/out cell growth (so each cell has very little cytoplasm) each of these cells is called a blastomere a. embrionic polarity –
1) upper is animal
2) lower is vegetal – contains yolk (food) which is more dense so it sinks to the bottom

b. polar & equatorial cleavages occur
1) polar = N to S
2) equatorial = E to W c. radial & spiral cleavages
1) deuterostomes – radial cleavage where cells are aligned with each other (chordates)
2) protostomes – spiral cleavage where cells are slightly offset from each other

d. indeterminate/determinate cleavage
1) when blastomeres are separated & each one can complete normal development it’s called indeterminate cleavage
2) when blastomeres are separated the individuals CAN’T complete development it’s called determinate cleavage (each cell has already determined how it will develop & has already grown past the point of no return) a) radial deuterostomes = indeterminate
(embryonic stem cells)

recap
1. fertilization
2. cleavage
3. Morula – continued cleavage makes a solid ball of cells called a morula

4. Blastula – cleavage continues- ball of cells fills with fluid & forms a hollow ball with a single layer of cells a. hollow area is called blastocoel
5. Gastrula – group of cells invaginates forming a 2layered embryo w/ an opening to the outside a. a 3 rd layer then forms between inner & outer layers – now you have the 3 germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm) b. center cavity formed = archenteron c. opening to archenteron (blastopore) becomes anus in deuterstomes (you)

6. Extraembryonic membrane development (birds, reptiles, humans) a. chorion – outer membrane that implants in to uterus wall (endometrium)
1) chorion + maternal tissue = placenta
2) this allows exchange of gases, nutrients, & wastes between embryo & mother b. allantois – encircles embryo – transports wastes
& develops into umbilical cord c. amnion – sac enclosing amniotic cavity which contains amniotic fluid that acts as a shock absorber

d. yolk sac – empty in mammals – in birds & reptiles contains nutrients & blood vessels to transfer nutrients to embryo
7. Organogenesis – cell differentiation – creation of tissues & organs a. notochord- form from cells on dorsal surface of mesoderm – creates vertebra b. neural tube – from ectoderm above notochord – a groove forms which ultimately develops into CNS