Augustus
and the City of Rome
27BC-14AD
A Brief look at Roman
History
The civilisation known as “Rome” has a long
history, some 12oo years. Throughout it’s
history, Rome underwent three distinct forms
of governance: monarchy, democracy and a
form of dictatorship known as the ‘Principate’
“In the beginning”
Rome in the Monarchical period
Rome was ruled by seven kings after it’s establishment by
Romulus in 753BCE. Monarchical rule in Rome grew steadily more
tyrannical until Rome overthrew the seventh king, the
spectacularly named Tarquinius Superbus in about 550BCE. This
revolution in which plebian and patrician joined forces to
establish a democracy was a hugely significant event and shaped
radical change in Roman society. Despite this, many offices and
practices of the monarchical period existed well into the Imperial
period.
The Senate
The Senate were a group of 100 men who were from “the best families
in Rome” Established by Romulus, the original king they originally
formed an advisory panel. After the overthrow of the kings, the Senate
now held supreme control in the new Roman “democracy”. Members
of the Senate controlled all the significant political and religious
positions and were the bulk of the landholders. In the later republic,
members of the Senate were forbidden from engaging in commerce by
the Lex Claudia. The senatorial class were the aristocracy of Rome.
They were also known as
the “patricians” and
subject to a different set of
laws than other Roman
social classes.
The Twelve Tables
While the Senate were one of the institutions to survive and
benefit from the overthrow of the kings, a new legal and
political system was instituted, known as the Twelve Tables.
This system, which took about 100 years to properly
formulate, “weakened” the stranglehold that the patricians
had over political and religious positions and ensured legal
equality for the working classes of Rome, known as plebians.
The Twelve tables were a series of concessions made by the
patricians in order to secure plebian support for the
overthrow of the monarchy. The tables were published
around Rome, unfortunately many plebians were illiterate.
Despite the concessions, it would be 200 years before a
plebian gained a significant political position and entered the
Senate.
Voting in Ancient Rome
As in any true democracy, voting was restricted to Roman citizens (males over
the age of 18 who were the offspring of Roman citizens) You could only vote if
you were present in Rome. Voting occurred in a number of different groups,
known as “assemblies” depending on the issue. Voting was often easily
manipulated and sometimes downright crooked.
Comitia Tributa
(Tribal Assembly)
Organised by neighbourhood. Voted for Questors,
Aediles and Tribune
Comitia Centuriata (Military
Assembly) Organised by military
service. Elected praetors, consuls and
censors. Could vote to go to war.
Became less important especially
after the Marian reforms
Plebian Assembly
(Concilium Plebis)
Organised by neightbourhood, but
plebians only. Voted for Plebian
tribunes (a key position in the Senate)
Roman Values
Pietas : means “duty” linked to religious observance
Auctoritas : means “authority” or the power to command.
Potestas : Influence or power
Dignitas : Prestige
Virtus : Incorruptability of character
Res publica: “the public good”
Pater Familias: The male head of the family
Matrona: the female spirit, embodied in mothers
Patronas: the concept of patronage, a mutual relationship between a client
(clientas) and a patron (patronas)
Mos Maiorum: in the tradition of our ancestors
Patronas and Clientas
The system of patronage dates back to the overthrow of the Monarchy. This
system was the glue that held Roman society together. Without this system
of mutual benefit, the delicate balance between the patrician and plebian
social classes would be lost. Patrons were generally wealthy Romans (mostly
patricians) while clientas were plebians. Most mornings clientas would greet
the patronas at his house in a ritual known as salutio.
Patronas
Patrons had a wide variety of
responsibilities such as providing legal
protection to their clients as well as
business loans. They could expect
political support and the odd ‘favour’
from their clientas. Patronas also
gained dignitas and auctoritas from
having many clientas.
Clientas
Clients were expected to stay loyal
(fides) to their patronas and promise
political support. They could expect
legal protection, financial benefit and
dignitas from this relationship.
Major events during the Republic
264 – 146 BCE
Punic Wars: Rome defeats
Carthage and becomes the
unchallenged power in the
Mediterranean
90-88BCE
Social Wars: Italian allies of
Rome win Roman citizenship by
defeating Roman military forces
107BCE
Marian Reforms: These reforms transformed the Roman Army
into a professional, full time force. Overnight the power of the
Army and it’s generals was transformed. While the Empire
began to grow at an unprecedented rate during the 1st century
BCE, the rise of the power of the military heralded the
beginning of a prolonged period of instability and the last days
of the Republic.
The End of the Republic:
Optimates V Populares
With the rise of power of the Army and with it the people, the Senate struggled to deal
with this new world order. From this problem, there emerged two groups within the
Senate: the Optimates and Populares. One group wanted to retain traditional forms of
power while the other was happy to compromise and supported popular political
decisions. These two warring Senatorial factions were exploited by many powerful Roman
generals.
Optimates
Populares
The conservative traditional majority of
Members of the Senate who relied on the
the Senate. They tried to retain their
plebs for their position. Populares were
power by limiting the power of the plebs
responsible for increasing grain doles in
by restricting the Plebis Concilium and
the city of Rome and spreading citizenship
shutting out the increasing number of
to Roman allies. Populares backed Julius
“novus homo” (new men) who were
Caesar and many other generals.
entering the Senate during this period
(many were Plebians)
Chaos and Civil War
Marius
Reformed the Army
then dominated Roman
politics by force. Civil
war with Sulla before
suicide.
Sulla
Defeated Marius and
marched on Rome before
reviving the office of
dictator and restoring the
balance between Senate
and plebs
Pompey
An optimate who used his
influence to dominate politics,
but entered into an agreement
with Crassus and Julius Casear.
Died in Egypt.
Beginning of Triumvirates
The period between 150 – 60BCE was tumultuous. The senate was depleated
by repeated proscriptions. After 60BCE, many new senators filled the ranks and
much of the mos maiorum was lost. Experience had taught ambitious senators
that stability benefitted everyone and those who could entered into secret
agreements. Behind the scenes, these men controlled the Senate, the Army and
the people, while on the surface, everything appeared to be working as normal.
The first agreement of this type was between Crassus, Pompey and a young
man called Julius Caesar.
The Death of Caesar
Caesar gained a consulship from his arrangement and quickly overwhelmed his partners
with his popularity. Crassus fades off into history and after Caesar’s daughter Julia dies,
open hostilities with Pompey begin. After Pompey’s death in Egypt, Caesar returns to
Rome unchallenged. Many Senators who fear a return to proscriptions and chaos offer
Caesar an unprecedented title, dictator for life which he accepted. A faction of Optimates,
led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar in order to preserve the Republic.
Unfortunately, this led to a power vacuum which allowed Caesar’s closest allies to step
into. They followed Caesars lead and formed a temporary alliance known as the Second
Triumvirate. These men were Marcus Lepidus, Caesar’s best friend, Marcus Antonius,
Caesar’s military protégé and Gaius Octavius, Caesar’s grand nephew and adopted son.
The trio would cement their alliance with marriages, financial agreements and common
political and military interests like the first agreement. It would also fall apart in much the
same way and lead to one of the trio dominating Roman life and establishing the
Principate.