A History of Chemical
Engineering
CHEE 2404
What is a Chemical Engineer?
a) An Engineer who manufactures
chemicals
b) A Chemist who works in a factory
c) A glorified Plumber?
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None of the above
• No universally accepted definition of ChE.
• However, aimed towards design of processes that
change materials from one form to another more
useful (and so more valuable) form, economically,
safely and in an environmentally acceptable way.
• Application of basic sciences (math, chemistry,
physics & biology) and engineering principles to
the development, design, operation & maintenance
of processes to convert raw materials to useful
products and improve the human environment.
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Chemical Engineering
• ChE involves specifying equipment, operating
conditions, instrumentation and process control for
all these changes.
Chemistry
Mathematics
Air
Natural Gas
Coal
Minerals
Energy
Economics
Physics
Biology
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What are the fields of Ch E?
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The traditional fields of ChE are:
petrochemicals, petroleum and natural gas
processing
plastics and polymers
pulp and paper
instrumentation and process control
energy conversion and utilisation
environmental control
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What are the fields of Ch E?
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Biotechnology
Biomedical and Biochemical
food processing
composite materials, corrosion and protective
coatings
• manufacture of microelectronic components
• Pharmaceuticals
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What do Chemical Engineers do?
• Regarding Engineers: it is not what we do, but how we think about
the world, that makes us different. We use all that we know to
produce the best solution to a problem (problems that engineers face
usually have more than one solution).
• Engineers use techniques of Quantitative Engineering Analysis to
design/synthesize products (materials, devices), services, and processes
even though they have an imperfect understanding of chemical,
physical, biological, or human factors affecting them.
• Engineers operate under the constraint of producing a product or
service that is timely, competitive, reliable, within the financial
means of their company, and is consistent with its philosophy.
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What do Chemical Engineers do?
Thus, they are involved in a wide range of
activities such as:
• design, development and operation of process
plants
• research and development of novel products and
processes
• management of technical operations and sales
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• Chemical engineer is either currently, or has
previously, occupied the CEO position for:
3M
Du Pont
General Electric
Union Carbide
Texaco
Dow Chemical
Exxon
BASF
Gulf Oil
B.F. Goodrich
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Where do Chemical Engineers
work?
The majority of Chemical Engineers work in businesses known collectively as
the Chemical Process Industries (CPI)
– Chemicals,
– Oil and Gas (upstream and downstream)
– Pulp and Paper,
– Rubber and Plastics,
– Food and Beverage,
– Textile,
– Electronics/IT
– Metals, mineral processing
– Electronics and microelectronics
– Agricultural Chemicals Industries
– Cosmetics/ Pharmaceutical
– Biotechnology/Biomedical
– Environmental, technical, and business consulting
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Where do Chemical Engineers
work?
• Many Chemical Engineers also work in supplier, consulting and
governmental agencies related to the CPI by engaging in equipment
manufacture, plant design, consulting, analytical services and
standards development.
• Chemical Engineers hold lead positions in industrial firms and
governmental agencies concerned with environmental protection since
environmental problems are usually complex and require a thorough
knowledge of the Social Sciences, Physics, Biology, Mathematics and
Chemistry for their resolution.
• Chemical engineers have been referred to as “universal engineers.”
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Where do Chemical Engineers
work? Initial placement of 2001/1999 graduates (USA)
Chemical
23.3
26.7
Fuels
15.7
12.6
Electronics
15.9
15.6
Food/Consumer Prods.
10.6
11.4
Materials
3.1
3.3
Biotech & Related Inds.
9.3
6.9
Pulp & paper
2.1
2.4
Engineering Services (Design & Construction)
5.6
4.8
Engineering Services (Research & Testing)
1.8
2.4
Engineering Services (Environmental Engng.)
2.4
2.6
Business Services
5.8
6.4
Other Industries
3.9
4.8
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How much money do Chemical
Engineers make? Starting salaries (USA)
The National Association of Colleges and
Employers (NACE) reported that, between Sept
1999 - Jan 2000, the average starting salary offer
made to graduating chemical engineering students
in the USA was:
• $49,418 with a Bachelor's degree
• $56,100 with a Master's degree
• $68,491 with a Ph.D.
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What is an Industrial Chemist?
• Industrial Chemists are Applied Scientists.
• Typically, they undertake optimization of complex
processes, but unlike engineers, they examine
and change the chemistry of the process itself.
• Industrial Chemists are capable of fulfilling a
multiplicity of roles - as research scientists,
development chemists, technical representatives
and as plant/company managers.
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Early Industrial Chemistry
• As the Industrial Revolution (18th Century to the
present) steamed along certain basic chemicals quickly
became necessary to sustain growth.
• Sulfuric acid was first among these "industrial chemicals".
It was said that a nation's industrial might could be gauged
solely by the vigor of its sulfuric acid industry
• With this in mind, it comes as no surprise that English
industrialists spent a lot of time, money, and effort in
attempts to improve their processes for making sulfuric
acid. A slight savings in production led to large profits
because of the vast quantities of sulfuric acid consumed by
industry.
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•
The German chemical industry experienced a period of rapid growth during the
19th Century. It was focused on the production of fine chemicals or complicated
dyestuffs based on coal tar. These were usually made in batch reactors
(something all chemists are familiar with). Hence, their approach to running a
chemical plant was based on teaming research chemists and mechanical
engineers.
•
However, the English and American chemical industries produced only a few
simple but widely used chemicals such as sulfuric acid and alkali (both made
in continuous reactors, something chemists have little experience with). These
bulk chemicals were produced using straightforward chemistry, but required
complex engineering on a large scale. The chemical reactors were no longer
just big pots, instead they involved complex plumbing systems where chemistry
and engineering were inseparably tied together. Because of this, the chemical
and engineering aspects of production could not be easily divided; as they were
in Germany.
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• Economics drives industry and
technological developments.
• Sulfuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol) & "Fuming"
Sulfuric Acid (Oleum) (H2SO4)
• Required for the production of alkali salts
(used in fertilizers) and dyestuffs
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Lead Chamber Process
• 1749 John Roebuck developed the process to make
relatively concentrated (30-70%) sulfuric acid in lead lined
chambers rather than the more expensive glass vessels.
• air, water, sulfur dioxide, a nitrate (potassium, sodium, or
calcium nitrate, and a large lead container.
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• The nitrate was the most expensive ingredient because
during the final stage of the process, it was lost to the
atmosphere (in the form of nitric oxide).
• Additional nitrate (sodium nitrate) was imported from
Chile - costly!
• In 1859, John Glover helped solve this problem with a
mass transfer tower to recover some of this lost nitrate.
Acid trickled down against upward flowing burner gases
which absorbed some of the previously lost nitric oxide.
When the gases were recycled back into the lead chamber
the nitric oxide could be re-used.
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Notice how sulfuric acid production closely mirrors historical events effecting the American economy.
Sulfuric acid production dropped after the American involvement in World War I (1917-1919) and open world trade
resumed.
The stock market crash of 1929 further stagnated growth which was restored at the outbreak of
World War II (1938). As the U.S. entered the war (1941) economy was rapidly brought up to full production
capacity.
The post war period (1940-1965) saw the greatest economic growth in America's history, and this was reflected in
ever increasing sulfuric acid production.
Massive inflation during the late sixties and the energy crisis and economic recession of the early seventies also
reveal themselves in the sulfuric acid curve
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Figure 1-1, Source: "US Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics from Colonial Times to 1970."
Making soap – a luxury
• It has been suggested that some form of soap, made by boiling fat with
ashes, was being made in Babylon as early as 2800BC, but probably
used only for washing garments.
• Pliny the Elder (7BC–53AD) mentions that soap was being produced
from tallow and beech ashes by the Phoenicians in 600BC.
• Oils or fats are boiled with alkali in a reaction which produces soap
and glycerin
• Saponification is hydrolysis of an ester under basic conditions, forming
an alcohol and salt
• Soap acts to reduce surface tension (surfactant) of water to make it
“wetter” and emulsifiying dirt (holding it in suspension)
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Historically,
Na2CO3 was used
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• 1700’s the demand for soap increased due to washing of clothes,
requiring Na2CO3
• The Alkali compounds, Soda ash (Na 2CO3) and potash (K2CO3),
were used in making glass, soap, and textiles and were therefore in
great demand.
• This alkali was imported to France from Spanish and Irish peasants
who burned seaweed and New England settlers who burned brush,
both to recover the ash
• At the end of the 1700's, English trees became scarce and the only
native source of soda ash in the British Isles was kelp (seaweed).
• Alkali imported from America in the form of wood ashes (potash),
Spain in the form of barilla (a plant containing 25% alkali), or from
soda mined in Egypt, were all very expensive due to high shipping
costs.
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King Louis XVI of France offered an award (equivalent
to half a million dollars) to anyone who could turn NaCl
(common table salt) into Na2CO3 because French access
to these raw materials was threatened.
• Nicolas Leblanc was a poor young man working in a
chemistry research lab established by the wealthiest man in
France, the Duke of Orleans.
• It took Leblanc 5 years to stumble upon the idea of
reacting NaCl with sulfuric acid to form sodium sulfate,
and then converting to sodium carbonate with limestone.
• In 1789 he went to collect his prize…unfortunately this
was during the time of the French Revolution.
• A factory was built, but the Duke was executed and the
factory seized.
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Alkali and the Le Blanc Process
• Dependence on imported soda ended with the Le Blanc Process which
converted common salt into soda ash using sulfuric acid, limestone
and coal as feedstock (raw materials) and produced hydrochloric acid
as a by-product.
• 2 NaCl (salt) + H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) => Na2SO4 (saltcake,
intermediate) + 2 HCl (hydrochloric acid gas, a horrible waste product)
• Na2SO4 (saltcake) + Ca2CO3 (calcium carbonate, limestone) + 4 C(s)
(coal) => Na2CO3 (soda ash extracted from black ash) + CaS (dirty
calcium sulfide waste) + 4 CO (carbon monoxide)
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Alkali and the Le Blanc Process
• In many ways, this process began the modern chemical industry.
• From its adoption in 1810 it was continually improved over the next 80
years through elaborate engineering efforts mainly directed at
recovering or reducing the terrible by-products of the process, namely:
hydrochloric acid, nitrogen oxides, sulfur, manganese, and chlorine
gas.
• Indeed because of these polluting chemicals many manufacturing sites
were surrounded by a ring of dead and dying grass and trees.
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Alkali and the Le Blanc Process
A petition against the Le Blanc Process in 1839 complained that:
"the gas from these manufactories is of such a deleterious nature as to blight everything within its
influence, and is alike baneful to health and property. The herbage of the fields in their vicinity is
scorched, the gardens neither yield fruit nor vegetables; many flourishing trees have lately become
rotten naked sticks. Cattle and poultry droop and pine away. It tarnishes the furniture in our houses,
and when we are exposed to it, which is of frequent occurrence, we are afflicted with coughs and pains
in the head...all of which we attribute to the Alkali works."
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Soda Ash and the Solvay Process
• In 1873 a new process - the Solvay Process - replaced Le Blanc's
method for producing Alkali.
• The process was perfected in 1863 by a Belgian chemist, Ernest
Solvay. The chemistry was based upon an old discovery by A. J.
Fresnel who in 1811 had shown that Sodium Bicarbonate could be
precipitated from a salt solution containing ammonium bicarbonate.
• This chemistry was far simpler than that devised by Le Blanc, however
to be used on an industrial scale many engineering obstacles had to be
overcome. Sixty years of attempted scale-up had failed until Solvay
finally succeeded. Solvay's contribution was therefore one of
chemical engineering.
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Soda Ash and the Solvay Process
• The heart of his design was an 80 foot tall high-efficiency
carbonating tower in which ammoniated brine trickled down and
carbon dioxide flowed up. Plates and bubble caps created a large
surface area (contacting area) over which the two chemicals could
react forming sodium bicarbonate.
• Solvay's engineering resulted in a continuously operating process
free of hazardous by-products and with an easily purified final
product.
• By 1880 it was evident that it would rapidly replace the traditional Le
Blanc Process.
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The dawn of Chemical Engineering
• English industrialists spent a lot of time, money, and effort in attempts
to improve their processes for making bulk chemicals because a slight
savings in production led to large profits because of the vast quantities
of sulfuric acid consumed by industry.
• The term "chemical engineer" had been floating around technical
circles throughout the 1880's, but there was no formal education for
such a person.
• The "chemical engineer" of these years was either a mechanical
engineer who had gained some knowledge of chemical process
equipment, a chemical plant foreman with a lifetime of experience but
little education, or an applied chemist with knowledge of large scale
industrial chemical reactions.
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The dawn of Chemical Engineering
• In 1887 George Davis, an Alkali Inspector from the "Midland" region
of England molded his knowledge into a series of 12 lectures on
chemical engineering, which he presented at the Manchester
Technical School. This chemical engineering course was organized
around individual chemical operations, later to be called “unit
operations”. Davis explored these operations empirically and
presented operating practices employed by the British chemical
industry.
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A new profession “Chemical
Engineering”
• For all intents and purposes the chemical engineering profession began
in 1888 when Professor Lewis Norton of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) initiated the first four year bachelor
program in chemical engineering entitled "Course X" (ten). Soon
other colleges, such as the University of Pennsylvania and Tulane
University followed MIT's lead in 1892 and 1894 respectively.
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First US Chemical Engineering
education
• 1888, Lewis M. Norton at MIT, as part of
Chemistry Department.
• In response to rapid rise of the industrial
chemical industries.
• Based on descriptive industrial chemistry,
of salt, potash, sulfuric acid, soap, coal.
• Graduates lacked concepts and tools to
solve new problems in the emerging
petroleum and organic chemical industries.
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First Canadian Chemical
Engineering education
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1878 Toronto (Analytical and Applied Chemistry)
1902 Queen’s (Department of Chemical Engineering)
1904 Toronto (Department of ChE and Applied Chemistry)
1912 Ecole Polytechnique (from “Diploma d’ingenieur-chimiste”
granted through Laval)
1942 Ecole Polytechnique (Industrial Chemistry)
1958 Ecole Polytechnique (Department of chemical Engineering)
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1914 McGill
1915 UBC
1926 Alberta
1934 Saskatchewan
1940 Laval
(Nova Scotia Technical College 1947)
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A new profession “Chemical
Engineering”
• From its beginning chemical engineering was tailored to fulfill the
needs of the chemical industry which, in the USA, was mostly based
on petroleum derived feedstocks. Competition between manufacturers
was brutal, and all strove to be the "low cost producer." However, to
stay ahead of the pack chemical plants had to be optimized. This
necessitated things such as; continuously operating reactors (as
opposed to batch operation), recycling and recovery of unreacted
reactants, and cost effective purification of products. These advances
in-turn required plumbing systems (for which traditional chemists
where unprepared) and detailed physical chemistry knowledge
(unbeknownst to mechanical engineers). The new chemical engineers
were capable of designing and operating the increasingly complex
chemical operations which were rapidly emerging.
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Unit operations
• In transforming matter from inexpensive raw materials to highly
desired products, chemical engineers became very familiar with the
physical and chemical operations necessary in this metamorphosis.
• Examples of this include:
– filtration
– drying
– distillation
– crystallization
– grinding
– sedimentation
Physical
– combustion
Chemical operations
– catalysis
– heat exchange
– coating, and so on.
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Unit Operations
• These "unit operations" repeatedly found their way into
industrial practice, and became a convenient manner of
organizing chemical engineering knowledge.
• Additionally, the knowledge gained concerning a "unit
operation" governing one set of materials can easily be
applied to others
• driving a car is driving a car no matter what the make .
• So, whether one is distilling alcohol for hard liquor or
petroleum for gasoline, the underlying principles are the
same!
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Unit operations
• The "unit operations" concept had been latent in the chemical
engineering profession ever since George Davis had organized his
original 12 lectures around the topic.
• But, it was Arthur Little who first recognized the potential of using
“Unit Operations" to separate chemical engineering from other
professions
• While mechanical engineers focused on machinery, and industrial
chemists concerned themselves with products, and applied chemists
studied individual reactions, no one, before chemical engineers, had
concentrated upon the underlying processes common to all chemical
products, reactions, and machinery. The chemical engineer, utilizing
the conceptual tool that was unit operations, could now make claim to
industrial territory by showing his or her uniqueness and worth to the
American chemical manufacturer.
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Paradigm: a pattern or model
Paradigm is a constellation that defines a
profession and an intellectual discipline
– Firm theoretical foundations, triumphant applications to
solve important problems
– Universities agree on core subjects taught to all
students, standard textbooks and handbooks,
accreditation of degrees
– Professional societies and journals
– Organize research directions - what is a good research
problem, and what are legitimate methods of solution?
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Chemical engineering paradigms
Pre-paradigm - engineers with no formal
education
1. The first paradigm - Unit Operations, 1923
2. The second paradigm - Transport Phenomena, 1960
3. The third paradigm - ?
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Pre-paradigm
• Fire (300,000 BC) as the first chemical technology
– Led to pyro-technologies: cooking, pottery, metallurgy,
glass, reaction engineering
• Chemical technology as empirical art, with no
reliable scientific foundation or formally educated
engineers.
• Ecole des Ponts et Chausee, 1736, first modern
engineering school.
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The first paradigm
• Arthur D. Little, industrialist and chair of
visiting committee of chemical engineering
at MIT, wrote report in 1908
“Unit Operations should be the foundation of
chemical engineering”
• First textbook Walker-Lewis-McAdams
“Principles of Chemical Engineering” 1923
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The first paradigm: early success
• Became
– core of chemical engineering curriculum, unit
operations, stoichiometry, thermodynamics
– principle to organize useful knowledge
– inspiration for research to fill in the gaps in
knowledge
• Effective in problem solving
– graduates have a toolbox to solve processing
problems in oil distillation, petrochemical, new
polymers
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The first paradigm: later
stagnation
• World War II creation of new technologies by
scientists without engineering education: atomic
bomb, radar.
• Engineering students needed to master new
concepts and tools in chemistry and physics.
• Unit Operations no longer created streams of
exciting new research problems that were
challenging to professors and students, and useful
in industry.
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The second paradigm
• First textbook “Transport Phenomena” by BirdStewart-Lightfoot, 1960, based on kinetic theory
of gases
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The second paradigm
• Textbook by Amundson
“Mathematical Methods in
Chemical Engineering”,
(1966).
• A new burst of creative
research activities.
• American chemical
industry dominated world,
DuPont and Exxon
content to recruit
academically educated
graduates, willing to teach
them technology.
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The second paradigm: early
success
• The Engineering Science movement
became dominant in the US, and was taught
at all the leading universities.
• AIChE accreditation requires differential
equations, transport phenomena.
• Research funding agencies and journals turn
their backs on empirical and qualitative
research as “old fashioned”.
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Chemical Engineering
accomplishments
•
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•
•
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•
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Production of Synthetic Ammonia and Fertilizers,
Production of petrochemicals,
Commercial-scale production of antibiotics (biotechnology/ pharmaceuticals),
Establishment of the plastics industry,
Establishment of the synthetic fiber industry,
Establishment of the synthetic rubber industry,
Electrolytic production of Aluminum,
Energy production and the development of new sources of energy,
Production of fissionable isotopes,
Production of IT products (storage devices, microelectronics, ultraclean
environment),
Artificial organs and biomedical devices,
Food processing,
Process Simulation tools.
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Undergraduate curriculum
• Designed to provide students with a broad background in the
underlying sciences of Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics
• Detailed knowledge of engineering principles and practices, along
with a good appreciation of social and economic factors
• Laboratory involvement is an important component
– Develop team work skills,
– Development of problem-identification and problem-solving skills.
• Stress the preparation of students for independent work and
development of interpersonal skills necessary for professional
engineers.
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Undergraduate curriculum
• Elective courses provide an opportunity to obtain additional training in
areas of emphasis:
– Environment
– Computers and Process Control
– Energy
– Biotechnology
– Petroleum
– Research & Development
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Curriculum
• Basic Sciences
– Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry
• Engineering Sciences
– Thermodynamics (Heat, work, phase equilibrium, chemical
equilibrium)
– Transport Phenomena (heat transfer, fluid mechanics, mass
transfer)
– Numerical Analysis
• Engineering Design
– Computer-Aided Design
– Chemical Reaction Engineering
– Separation Processes
– Process Control
– Process Design
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Co-operative education
•
Co-operative education integrates on-campus studies with practical work experience
–
–
–
•
Results in a degree solidly grounded in both theory and practice
Acquiring skills that are complementary to academic training
Facilitates getting a desirable job upon graduation (50% of jobs are not advertised)
Co-op is a challenging and rewarding way to earn your degree and the necessary work
experience to gain an edge on the career market at graduation
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Year 5
•
FALL
AT1
AT3
WT1
AT6
AT7
WINTER
AT2
AT4
AT5
WT3
AT8
SUMMER
FREE
FREE
WT2
WT4
Students also have the ability to do a 12 or 16 month internship in which all work terms
are done at once
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Skills required
• Technical skills are vital.
– But all employees will have a high level of technical competence
(otherwise they aren’t employed for long).
•
“Soft Skills” advance careers
– Leadership (self motivated),
– Ability to work in groups,
– Communication
With such a broad education, Chemical Engineers are well prepared to
address problems involving all types of changes to the physical and/or
chemical state of materials.
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Chemical Engineering: New
Directions?
• Phasing out of formerly successful products: tetra-ethyl
lead, DDT, cellophane, freon or CFC.
• End of the parade of new polymers: celluloid, bakelite,
nylon, kevlar.
• To attract the best students, the lure of new products to
enhance lives - laptop computers, cellular phone and
internet.
• Cost-cutting and environmental protection is no match for
glamorous new products.
• We need to give chemical engineers the intellectual
toolbox, to innovate exciting new products that people will
learn to love.
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Product Engineering: a third
paradigm?
• Product engineering is innovation and design of
useful products that people want
– 1. Define a product, study the customers &
needs
– 2. Understand property-structure
– 3. Design and innovate the product
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How do I find out more information?
• AIChE
www.aiche.org
• CSChE
www.chemeng.ca
• IChemE www.icheme.chemeng.ed.ac.uk
• Join the student chapter of CSChE
• Talk to Chemical Engineers
• Read Chemical Engineering magazines
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