Julius Caesar
Plutarch’s Life of Caesar
Course Outline
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Background Information
The Cursum Honorum
Roman religion
Caesar’s career before his campaigns in Gaul
The Wars in Gaul (58 BC – 51 BC)
Importance of the Wars in Gaul
The Civil Wars
Brutus and the Death of Caesar
The First Triumvirate
Pompey
Caesar
Crassus
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Aspects of Caesar
How Caesar got power
Daily life in Rome in 1st century BC
Entertainment
Public work and administration
The Roman Army
Descriptions of Caesar by Plutarch and
Suetonius
 Influence
Political alliances
 Caesar was clever to
use family and friends to
make political alliances.
 He gave his daughter
Julia to Pompey in
marriage.
The Wars in Gaul
 Lasted from 58 BC to 51 BC
 Defeat of the Tiguirini and Helvetii
 Defeat of Ariovistus, king of the Germani
(Germans)
 Defeat of the Belgae (Belgians)
 Defeat of the Nervii (Tribe in North Belgium)
 Caesar crosses the Rhine in pursuit of Usipes
and Teneritae
 55 BC & 54 BC: Caesar crosses to Britian from
Gaul
=> end of First Triumvirate (deaths of Julia &
Crassus)
 Gaul revolts – some Roman armies wiped out
13. Campaigns in Gaul seen as a fresh
start
 Begins to be compared with great
generals
 Shown to be a compassionate general
 Soldiers respected him and fought with
extreme courage for him
 He fought for his soldiers (eg: saved
them from barbarians in Britian)
Caesar’s bravery
17.
 Willingly exposed
himself to danger
 Money gained from war
used as a public fund,
not for personal gain
 Appeared weak (pale,
skinny, epileptic) but
endured great hardship
in war
 During these wars he
taught himself to be
able to dictate letters
from horseback
18. Defeat of the Helvetii & Tigurini
 They had burnt down their own 12 towns and
four hundred villages
 Planned to march towards Roman province in
Gaul
 Labenius, under Caesar’s
instructions, brought them to
near the river Arar
 Helvetians surprised Caesar
and jumped him while he was
moving his army to a
confederate town
 However, he managed
to overcome the
Helvetians
 His horse was brought
to him, but he famously
said
“ When I have won the
battle, I will use my
horse
for the chase, but at
present let us go
against
the enemy” & charged
them on foot.
End of the Helvetii
 Drove army out of the field
 Women and children also defended
carriages and ramparts and were cut to
pieces
 Forced barbarians to
re-occupy deserted land
 He feared the Germani
would take it while it was
uninhabited
Germani
 Ariovistus, the king of the Germans had
previously been recognised in Rome as an
ally.
 However, now Caesar defended Gaul against
them, as it was likely they would march
against Gaul.
 Ariovistus did not expect the Gauls to march
against the Germani.
 Their holy women saw bad omens and told
them not to march before the new moon.
 Caesar saw that
they were hesitating,
and chose to attack
at this time.
 After pushing them
out of their
strongholds, he
chased them as far
as the Rhine and
there slayed an
estimated 80,000
soldiers.
The Belgae
 Caesar now had to deal with Roman affairs.
 He went to the area of Gaul that lies on the
River Po.
 The Belgae were the most powerful of all the
Gauls, and inhabited a third of the country.
 Caesar heard that they were revolted, and so
gathered a large army and soon defeated
them.
 They had a large army, but proved little match
for Caesar.
 Plutarch says that the Romans
were able to cross the marshes
and deep rivers by the sheer
amount of dead Belgae bodies
in them.
 He led his army against the Nervii, who were
the fiercest tribe of the Belgae. Caesar
compared them to The Spartans.
 They jumped Caesar unawares while he was
setting up camp.
 Caesar’s army was in deep trouble,
and had Caesar himself not forced
his way through his own men, and then
been backed up the tenth legion who came
down from the hills where they lay, it is
highly likely that Caesar’s army would have
been decimated.
 It is said that only 500/60,000
of the Nervii’s men, and only
3/400 of their senators survived
the battle.
Celebrations…
 The Roman Senate was
overjoyed, and ordered that sacrifices and
festivals to the gods be observed for 15 days,
the longest period ever dedicated for a
victory.
 He returned back to the Po, and was visited
by the most powerful men in Rome; Pompey,
Crassus, Appius and Nepos.
Bribery
 Those running for office received money
from him to corrupt the people and buy their
votes.
 When they were elected, those who had
received his help now helped him to
advance his power.
 It was decided that Crassus and Pompey
should be consuls for the forthcoming year,
and that Caesar should get new funds, and
that he be put in command for five more
years.
The Usipes & Tenteritae
 Caesar returned to
his troops in Gaul
and found the
country in a war.
 Two Germani tribes,
the Usipes and the
Tenteritae, had
recently crossed the
Rhine to conquer it.
Treaty
 He made a treaty with the barbarians, but then,
according to Caesar, they set upon him during
the treaty.
 When they returned to renew the same treaty,
he kept the ambassadors and set upon the
barbarians.
 Cato declared that Caesar should be given up
to the barbarians to atone for the breach in the
treaty.
Crossing of the Rhine
 Caesar invaded the Germani, and became the
first man to cross the Rhine with an army.
 He carried a bridge across it by driving great
piles of wood into the bottom of the river.
 He completed the bridge in an astounding ten
days.
The Suevi
 He met with no
opposition crossing the
river.
 The Suevi, who were
the most warlike of the
Germans, fled into the
wooded valleys.
 He spent 18 days in
Germania, and burnt
the enemy country, then
returned to Gaul.
Britannia
 By far, his expedition into Britannia, was his
greatest, and bravest, endeavour.
 He was the first man to bring an army into the
Western ocean.
 The existence of Britannia was at this point
debatable.
 This is the point where he is said to have
extended the limits of the Roman Empire
beyond the known world.
 His battles with Britain caused more harm to
the people than it did benefit him, because it
was at that time, so poor that they had nothing
worth stealing.
 He eventually contented himself with taking
hostages from the king, and imposing a tribute
before leaving.
Death of Julia
 When he returned to
Gaul, he learned
that his daughter
Julia had died in
childbirth.
 Many rightly feared
that this would see
the end of his
alliance with
Pompey.
23. Gaul revolts
 Caesar’s army had become
very large
 Caesar returned to Italy
 While he was gone, war broke out right
across Gaul
 Large armies marched across Gaul and
Roman camps were attacked
 Strongest group of rebels were under the
command of Abriorix
 Some Roman armies were wiped out
 His army of 60,000 attacked Cicero’s legion
 They were almost beaten until Caesar
gathered together 7,000 men
 Abriorix was so sure of a certain victory over
such a small number that they went to meet
him
 Caesar held his men off fighting until they had
camped and barricaded the ramparts
 They had a certain victory over Abriorix
24. WAR
 This calmed most of the fighting in Gaul
 Caesar visited every part of the country that
winter to ensure further revolt would not occur
 Pompey sent him more men to make up for
those lost
 Despite Caesar’s precautions, a huge war
broke out
 Many tribes worked together
 The Arvemi, Carnuntini and Aedui revolt
under Vergentorix
 25: Vergentorix planned to involve all of Gaul
in the war
 Had he done so at a different time, when
Caesar was engaged in the civil war in Italy,
he may have succeeded
 But as soon as Caesar heard of the revolt, he
turned on his heels and attacked the
barbarians
25. The Sequani
 The Edui had been an ally of the Romans
 However, they now changed their allegiances
and joined the rebels
 His army were discouraged at this
 He thus moved on towards the land of the
Sequani, his allies
 The enemy attacked, but he overcame them all
Alesia
 Alesia was located at
modern-day AliseSainte-Reine, in the
Bourgogne
(Burgundy) region of
France, on the Côte
d’Or.
26. Battle of Alesia
 Those who had escaped fled into Alesia, which
Caesar then attacked.
 Because it was so well barricaded,
Caesar faced the greatest danger
he ever had.
 The best of all Gaul’s men,
numbering at least 300,000 came
to Alesia’s help.
Reconstruction of Alesia’s fortifications
 Within the walls of the city was
an army of at least 170,000.
 Caesar was forced to protect
himself between two walls
against these two forces.
 Amazingly, Caesar overcame this huge army,
and gained huge spoils of war.
 He won so quick a victory that those left
surrendered, and Vergentorix, the chief
commander, rode out on his horse, made a turn
around Caesar, threw off his armour and
surrendered at his feet.
28. The Final Countdown
 Both Caesar and Pompey had long since
decided on bringing about the other’s
downfall.
 Crassus’ unity with them both had kept them
at peace, but when he was killed in Parthia,
they both knew that all they had to do to
become the greatest man in Rome was to kill
the other.
 Rome had practically been left with no
government at all, because bribery was used
to gain office and many times men were killed
on the spot of the election.
 Some people declared that the government
could only be fixed by putting a monarchy in
place.
 Pompey strived to
become dictator.
 Cato tried to make him sole consul, thinking
this would stop him trying to become dictator.
29. Pompey continued to have under his
command the provinces of Spain and all of
Africa (Cartage).
 Caesar also petitioned for the consulship and
continued command over his provinces
(Gaul).
 Caesar bribed many prominent men in
Rome.
 Pompey, worried, set about trying to appoint a
successor for Caesar, and ordered back the
troops he had sent out to Caesar in Gaul.
 Caesar returned them, and gave each man a
present of 250 drachmas.
 Their officer came back with
negative reports about Caesar,
his command and how the army
felt towards him.
 He flattered Pompey, falsely saying that
Caesar’s army desired Pompey as their leader,
and were tired of Caesar’s endless campaigns
and feared he was trying to bring about a
monarchy in Rome.
 Pompey grew confident, and didn’t make any
preparations for war as he feared no danger
from Caesar.
 It is said that one of his captains, sent by
Caesar to Rome, was told that the Senate
would not give Caesar longer time in
government.
 He put his hand to his sword
and said, “But this shall.”
30.
 Caesar proposed to lay down his arms, and
said Pompey should do the same.
 He said they should leave politics and
become private men.
 It is ironic that those who wanted rid of
Caesar and to put Pompey in power, were
only effectively replacing one tyrant with
another.
 Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) read a letter
from Caesar to the Senate.
 Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, stated that if
Caesar did not lay down his arms, he should
be declared an enemy of the state.
 Anthony again proposed that both
should lay down their arms.
 Scipio became very violent.
30. Letters home…
 Caesar sent more letters, for he had decided to
give up everything else and keep only Gaul
within the Alps, Illyricum and two legions, until
he was to stand as consul for the second time.
 Pompey was willing to comply in most things,
but would not give him the soldiers.
 Lentulus, the consul, drove Antony and Curio
out of the senate-house.
 They were forced to escape and flee Rome in
a hired carriage dressed as slaves.
31: Caesar had at that time only 300 horses
and 5,000 infantry, as the rest of his army
was left behind in the Alps and were to follow
after him.
Ariminum
Ariminum
 He sent Hortensius with a force to take over
Ariminum, a large city of Gaul, in modern Italy.
 He followed himself after and when he arrived at the
River Rubicon, he began to realise the danger that
faced him.
 He hesitated for a long time, changed his mind often,
but eventually threw caution to the winds and took to
the river saying, “The die is cast”.
 Before the next morning, he had reached Ariminum
and conquered it.
River Rubicon
32. Civil War
 Once Ariminum was taken, war broke
out.
 Rome was overrun.
 There was no government.
 Some blamed Pompey
for having armed Caesar.
 Others blamed him for not
taking up Caesar’s offer of peace.
Run!
 At that time, he still had more forces
than Caesar.
 He received all sorts of different reports and
feared the enemy was closing in on him.
 He declared Rome to be in a state of anarchy.
 Flees Rome, ordering the Senate to follow.
 Said no one should stay behind who did not
prefer tyranny to their country and liberty.
Traitors
 The consuls and most of their senators fled.
 Some who had supported Caesar, now fled as
well along with everyone else.
 Even Labenius, who had been a lieutenant,
and dear friend, of Caesar’s during the wars in
Gaul, now deserted him.
Pompey flees
 Caesar took into his army any men he found in
towns on the way back to Rome who were
enlisted for Pompey’s service.
 Now stronger, he advanced towards Pompey,
who had fled to Brundisium.
 As Caesar came, he ran off to sea.
Brundisium
Dictator
 Caesar now headed for Spain, and defeated
Pompey’s lieutenants Afranius and Varro and made
himself leader of their provinces.
 Upon Caesar’s return to Rome, his father-in-law Piso
advised him to once again try to make peace with
Pompey.
 Caesar was named dictator by Senate.
 He calls home those who had fled, gave back the
rights of citizenship to the children of those who’d
suffered under Sylla and relieved debts.
 Caesar would have followed him but as he
needed supplies, he returned to Rome,
having made himself leader of all of Italy
without fighting in 60 days.
 He arrived in Rome, finding the city a lot
quieter than he expected.
 He treated the senators he found there with
respect in the hope that they would convince
Pompey to come to a peaceful agreement.
 Nobody would, either because they were
afraid of Pompey or because they didn’t
believe Caesar was genuine.
r
 After eleven days of dictatorship, he resigned
and declared himself consul, with Isauricus.
 He headed back to war.
 Took Oricum and Apollonia.
a
 Caesar at this time was posted in Apollonia,
but had not got a big enough army to fight
Pompey, who had taken a long time to come
from Brundisium.
 In a few months Caesar subdued Pompey’s
supporters.
 In January 48 he turned his attention towards
Greece, where Pompey had gathered a large
army.
48 BC Battle of Pharsalus
 The final battle took place at Pharsalus, in Thessaly.
 The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato
the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence
in the newly raised troops especially since so many
cities in northern Italy had voluntarily surrendered.
 Pompey was defeated and sought refuge in Egypt,
the last large Mediterranean country which had not
yet been touched by the Roman expansion.
Pharsalus, Greece
s
Caesar decided to chase Pompey even there. With a
small army he landed in Alexandria.
 The rhetorician Theodotos of Chios had persuaded
Ptolomy to kill Pompey, thus violating the laws of
hospitality, to gain Caesar's support in his quarrel
with his sister and wife Cleopatra.
 Upon Caesar’s arrival in Alexandria, Ptolomy offered
him the head of Pompey.
 Caesar was disgusted and is said to have wept at the
sight.
 Ptolomy and Cleopatra had been
left as co-rulers of Egypt, and they
engaged in civil war for the throne.
 Cleopatra, who wished to become the sole
ruler of Egypt, was however advised by
Caesar to marry another brother (Ptolomy
XIII).
 Caesar tried to reconcile Cleopatra and
Ptolomy, but eventually, after falling in love
with Cleopatra who apparently bore him a
child (Caesarion), he sided with her and
defeated Ptolomy.
The Love Affair
 Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman Law
only recognised between two Roman citizens.
 Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra
throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery - and
possibly fathered a son called Caesarion.
 Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion,
residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across
the Tiber.
The Son of Caesar
 Caesarion later
became known as
Ptolomy XIV.
 He was son of
Cleopatra of Egypt
and supposedly
Julius Caesar.
I came, I saw, I conquered
 After spending the first months of 47 BC in
Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East.
 He easily beat King Pharnaces II of
Pontus in the Battle of Zela, in just five
days.
 Because of this swift victory, he coined the
phrase Veni Vidi Vici (I came, I saw, I
conquered) to celebrate this win.
Pompey’s sons
 He quickly gained a significant victory at
Thapsus in 46 BC over Metellus Scipio (who
died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who
committed suicide).
 Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus
Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together
with Titus Labienus, Caesar’s
second in command in the Gallic
War, escaped to Hispania.
Consul
 Caesar gave chase and defeated the last
remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda
in March 45 BC.
 During this time, Caesar was elected to his
third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (alone).
Aftermath of civil war
 While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the
Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar in
absentia.
 Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, but
pardoned nearly all of them instead, and there was
no serious public opposition to him.
 Games were held in honour of Caesar’s victory.
 Many thought this was bad form, as those who had
been killed in the Battle of Munda were fellow
Romans, not foreigners.
Caesar’s heir
 On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45
BC, he filed his will.
 He named his grand-nephew Gaius Octavius
(Octavian) as the heir to everything, including
his name.
 Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before
Caesar did, Marcus Junius Brutus would be the
next heir in succession.
‘The’ Brutus
The Julian Calendar
 In 63 BC Caesar had been elected Pontifex
Maximus, and one of his roles was settling the
calendar.
 He completely overhauled the Roman
calendar.
 In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year
with a leap year every fourth year.
 46 BC was made 445 days long to bring
Caesar’s calendar into line with the seasons.
 In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII modified this
calendar into the Gregorian Calendar that we
use today.
Dictator in perpetuum
 In February 44 BC, Caesar named himself
dictator in perpetuum, meaning dictator for
life.
 The Senate felt he was becoming too
powerful, acting like a king and making
decisions without consulting them.
 A group of conspirators known
as the Liberatores planned to
assassinate him.
The Plot
 Many ideas were put forward as to where the
assassination would take place.
 They included along the Sacred Way, where
he liked walking alone, at the elections and at
a gladiatorial show.
 They decided on the Senate itself because
non-Senators would not be allowed in and the
Senators could hide their daggers beneath
their togas.
Fears
 Rumours were of course
abound and many of his
friends tried to stop him
going to the Senate that day.
 His wife, Calpurnia, had bad dreams about it
and also tried to stop him going.
 His doctors tried to stop him as he was
having one of his dizzy spells. (Epilepsy?
Malaria?)
Coward
 Marcus Junius Brutus was a close friend of Caesar’s
and had even been named in his will as his second
successor.
 Unbeknownst to Caesar, Brutus was one of those
plotting to kill him.
 He chided Caesar for his fears, saying:
 'What is this, Caesar? Are you a man to pay attention
to a woman's dreams and the idle gossip of stupid
men, and to insult the Senate by not going out,
although it has honored you and has been specially
summoned by you? But listen to me, cast aside the
forebodings of all these people, and come. The
Senate has been in session waiting for you since
early this morning.'
The Ides of March
 A certain soothsayer (prophet/ seer) had
already warned Caesar to be on his guard
against a great peril on the day of the month
of March which the Romans call the Ides.
 When the day had come and Caesar was on
his way to the senate-house, he greeted the
seer with a jest and said: "The Ides of March
has come," and the seer said to him softly:
"Aye, Caesar, but not gone.”
 The Ides of March (Latin: Idus Martiae) is the
Roman calendar.
 The term ides was used for the 15th day of
the months of March, May, July, and October,
and the 13th day of the other eight months.
 In Roman times, the Ides of March was a
festive day dedicated to the god Mars and a
military parade was usually held.
Marc Antony
 The Liberators called Caesar to the forum for the
purpose of reading a petition written by the senators,
asking him to hand power back to the Senate.
 However, the petition was a fake.
 Marc Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the
night before from a terrified Liberator named Servilius
Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar
off at the steps of the forum.
 However, the group of senators intercepted Antony
just as he was passing the Theatre of Pompey and
directed him to a room adjoining the east portico.
This is violence!!
 As Caesar began to read the false petition,
Tillius Cimber, who had handed him the
petition, pulled down Caesar's tunic.
 While Caesar yelled at Cimber "But that is
violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!"), the
aforementioned Casca produced his dagger
and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's
neck.
 Caesar turned around quickly and caught
Casca by the arm, saying in Latin "Casca,
you villain, what are you doing?"
 Casca, frightened, shouted "Help, brother" in
Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει!", "adelphe, boethei!")
as he was stabbed with a pen by the
unarmed Caesar.
 Within moments, the entire
group, including Brutus, was
striking out at the dictator.
 Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by
blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued
stabbing him as he lay prone on the lower
steps of the portico.
The lethal wound…
 Around sixty or more men participated in
the assassination.
 He was stabbed 23 times, but according
to Suetonius, a physician later
established that only one wound, the
second one to his chest, had been lethal.
Et tu, Brute?
 Caesar's last words are
not known with certainty
and are a contested
subject among scholars
and historians alike.
 The version best known
in the English-speaking
world is the Latin phrase
Et tu, Brute?, which
derives from William
Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar, where it actually
forms the first half of the
line: "Et tu, Brute? Then
fall, Caesar."
To speak or not to speak...?
 Suetonius, reports that others have claimed Caesar's
last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σὺ τέκνον;“
(transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, my
child?" in English or "Tu quoque, Brute, fili mi" in Latin)
- though he himself claims Caesar said nothing as he
died.
 This translation has led to some believing that Brutus
was another of Caesar’s illegitimate sons.
 Plutarch reports that Caesar said nothing and merely
pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus
among the conspirators.
Interpretation
 While the words are usually understood as an
expression of shock and betrayal towards Brutus, it has
recently been argued that the phrase was instead
uttered as a curse and threat.
 One theory states Caesar adapted the words of a
Greek sentence which to the Romans had long since
become proverbial.
 The complete phrase is said to have been "You too my
son, will have a taste of power," of which Caesar only
needed to invoke the opening words to foreshadow
Brutus’ own violent death, in response to his
assassination.
 In a similar vein, Caesar's words have been interpreted
to mean "Your turn next."
Friends, Romans, Countrymen…
 Asides from the debate over Caesar’s last
words, Marc Antony has also been attributed
with the famous “Friends, Romans,
Countrymen, lend me your ears…” speech.
 This was, of course, not actually spoken by
him, but by his character in Shakespeare’s
play.
Aftermath
 The assassination of Caesar was intended to restore
the Roman Republic and the power of the Senate.
 However, it had the opposite effect and effectively
brought about the end of the Republic.
 Caesar had been extremely popular, especially with the
middle and lower classes, and they were outraged that
their leader had been murdered by a small group of
aristocrats.
The First Emperor of
Rome
 Caesar’s adoptive son,
Octavius, inherited both the
empire and the title of
Caesar at the age of 19,
thus becoming Caesar
Octavian.
 When Caesar was deified as
Divius Iulius in 42 BC, he
became Divi filius (Son of a
god)
Civil War
 While Octavian was establishing his power,
Marc Antony set about dealing with Brutus,
Cassius and the Optimates, in what was to be
the new civil war.
 Brutus was offered an amnesty the day after
the assassination, which he accepted, with the
stipulation that he was to leave Rome.
 Octavian had Caesar’s killers declared
murderers and enemies of the state.
 The Second Triumvirate re-introduced
proscription.
 Antony and Octavian defeated the Optimates at
Philippi.
 Brutus fled to the hills where he committed
suicide.
 Cassius ordered his freedman Pindarus to kill
him.
 According to Plutarch, among his last words
were, “By all means we must fly, not with our feet
however, but with our hands.”
Death of Brutus
Antony and Cleopatra…
 Antony moved to Egypt and married
Caesar’s lover, Cleopatra, intending to
use the wealthy country as a base to
dominate Rome.
 However, this erupted a Third Civil War
between Octavian and the two newlyweds.
The First Emporer of
Rome
 Octavian defeated them.
 This established his permanent seat of
power.
 He became the First Emperor of Rome.
 He became known as Caesar Augustus.
What did Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan,
Napoleon, Mussolini and Hitler have in common?
Apart from a lust for world domination, they were all
supposed to suffer from ailurophobia, the fear of cats.