CIVIL WAR
“THE DIE IS CAST”
Who caused the Civil War?

Caesar? “ His ambition had soared so high because he was conscious of
his power to become the master of the Empire.’ Gelzer
 Pompey and Caesar?” Pompey for his part was reluctant to let anyone
stand on the same pinnacle as himself. For this reason and because he had
been listening to Caesar’s enemies he had completely severed his friendly
connections with Caesar.” Caesar
 ‘Absolute power has been what he and Pompey sought.’ Cicero
 Senate? “ A precedent has been created in government; in the recent
past, armed force restored the tribunes veto; now armed force is repressing
and overriding it.”Caesar
 “The Roman Senate, which had sole responsibility for foreign policy and
warmaking, became reluctant to finance the large standing army necessary
to police and defend this territory. The result was that control and support of
Rome’s armies gradually fell to its generals… “ Jimenez
 “ The nobility gloried in idleness and at the same time trembled for their
wealth, the use and the increase of which they accounted greater than
eternal life itself.”Aurelius Victor
 A broader view? .”On broader grounds it may be confidently said that the
civil war was not of Caesar's making.....Caesar in 49 like Sulla in 83 was
offered the choice between self defense and political extinction......therefore
the 22 extremist senators who insisted on Caesar's recall were in fact
insisting on Civil War. To them the feud with Caesar had become a higher
object than the welfare of the State." Cary
Lucan’s Pharsalia


Such were the hidden motives of the chiefs;
But in the public life the seeds of war
Their hold had taken, such as are the doom
Of potent nations: and when fortune poured
Through Roman gates the booty of a world,
The curse of luxury, chief bane of states,
Fell on her sons. Farewell the ancient ways!
Behold the pomp profuse, the houses decked
With ornament; their hunger loathed the food
Of former days; men wore attire for dames
Scarce fitly fashioned; poverty was scorned,
Fruitful of warriors; and from all the world
Came that which ruins nations
Great was the glory in the minds of men,
Ambition lawful even at point of sword,
To rise above their country: might their law:
Decrees were forced from Senate and from Plebs:
Consul and Tribune broke the laws alike:
Bought were the fasces, and the people sold
For gain their favour: bribery's fatal curse
Triumvirate
Wealth from
empire
Declining moral
values
Ambition
Violence
corruption
The Protaganists
“When the principal combatants are Roman and members of the
elite, the difference between us and them is blurred”
Cynthia Damon
Caesar’s reality was that he had begun a Civil War with one
legion. All of Rome’s legions were under Pompey’s
command, but dispersed.
Justifying actions


".They [the hostile
senators] have seduced
Pompey . . . and led him
astray, through jealous
belittling of my merits . . . I
ask you to defend my
reputation and standing
against the assaults of my
enemies.“
Caesar, The Civil War,
I.8.
A General and an Orator


"Fellow-soldiers - you are joined with me
in the greatest of undertakings - neither the
winter weather, nor the delay of our
comrades, nor the want of suitable
preparations shall check my onset. I
consider rapidity of movement the best
substitute for all these things...Let us
oppose our good fortune to the winter
weather, our courage to the smallness of
our numbers, and to our want of supplies
the abundance of the enemy, which will be
ours to take as soon as we touch the land...
It is needless to tell you that the most potent
thing in war is the unexpected...For my part
I would rather be sailing than talking, so
that I may come to Pompey's sight while he
thinks me engaged in my official duties in
Rome.“
Caesar's speech to his soldiers in
Brundisium after Pompey's forces had
escaped.
After the Rubicon?

The senatorial party had given command to Pompey
but, as Pompey slowly gathered his legions, Caesar
took city after city in northern Italy, almost all by peaceful
surrender. It appeared that all of northern Italy would fall
to Caesar without a serious battle. Pompey was now in
his late '50s, and had not commanded troops in the field
for 15 years. His slow response to Caesar's invasion
may have been a sign of age, or possibly a sign that the
legions available to the Republic in Italia had, in many
cases, fought with Caesar's legendary Gallic legions:
their loyalty was debatable.
Pompey’s Strategy

Pompey intended to fight Caesar, not in Italia, but in
Asia, an area of the Roman world in which he had
strong connections and many client-kings.


Unfortunately, in the scramble to evacuate Rome,
neither Pompey nor the Senators thought to take charge
of Rome's treasury, stored under the Temple of Saturn.
Caesar would find it intact when he entered Rome and
impounded the lot - 15,000 bars of golden, 30,000 bars
of silver, and 30,000,000 sesterces in coin.
Caesar’s approach- gently ,gently
"...I had of my own accord decided to show all
possible clemency and to do my best to
reconcile Pompey. Let us try whether by this
means we can win back the goodwill of all and
enjoy a lasting victory, seeing that others have
not managed by cruelty to escape hatred or to
make their victories endure, except only L.
Sulla, whom I do not propose to imitate. Let this
be the new style of conquest, to make mercy
and generosity our shield."
 Cicero, quoting Caesar, Selected Letters, 68.

BLITZKREIG
The suddenness of
Caesar’s advance
surprised everyone,
including Pompey. He
quickly left Rome
declaring that it could not
be defended. Most
magistrates and the two
Consuls left with him
Many Romans were
uncertain as to which side
to join
The first clash came at
Corfinium where Domitius
Ahenobarbus had
mustered new recruits,
planning to hold the city
Clemency of Corfinium





By February Caesar had united the 13th and 12th legions. They soon
blockaded the town
Ahenobarbus received a letter from Pompey refusing aid and in his panic
the soldiers and tribunes arrested him and sent envoys to Caesar
acknowledging their surrender.
Ahenobarbus requested poison from his physician but on hearing of
Caesar’s clemency went out to surrender. He was accompanied by 50
senators and equestrians.
Caesar repeated to them how unjustly he had been treated, reminding them
of personal favours he had done many of them in the past.
After that they were allowed to go free. Never had so many distinguished
Romans received such clemency at the hands of an enemy.
Cicero’s reaction

" But do you see what sort of man this is into
whose hands the state has fallen, how clever,
alert, well prepared? I verily believe that if he
takes no lives and touches no man's property
those who dreaded him most will become his
warmest admirers." " Cicero, Selected Letters,
67
Brundisium




Caesar was joined at Brundisium by the veteran Eighth legion. Caesar now
had 6 legions and cohorts from Transalpine Gaul.
Caesar made further attempts to negotiate with Pompey but on the night of
March 17 Pompey escaped with his legions in ships to Greece. In time he
planned to raise more troops and march on Rome. He often declared to
those who would listen “ Sulla did it, why shouldn’t I.”
For the moment Caesar could not follow due to lack of ships. Rather than
waste time Caesar very shrewdly chose to turn his attention to Spain which
contained Pompey’s best legions
He remarked that he was going to fight “ an army without a general” and
that then he would deal with “ a general without an army”
Stages of the Civil War
Stage 1
Aug 49Caesar defeats Pompey’s forces in Spain
& controls Massilia
October Caesar appointed Dictator of Rome
Stage 2
Dec 49Caesar pursuesPompey to Brundisium
And transports Troops toDyrrachium
Stage 3
Jan 48 Defeat at Dyrrachium
Stage 4
Aug 48 Victory atPharsalus
August 48 Caesar appointed Consul for 5 years
Stage 5
47,46,45 BC
Caesar fights the remnant Pompeian forces in
the Battles of Zela, Thapsus and Munda
44BC Caesar appointed Dictator Perpetuos
Caesar in Spain


In Spain Caesar’s troops were
almost defeated because of the
loose order of the Spanish army.
Floodwaters had also blocked off
the supply routes but Caesar
devised a solution by building
bridges and transport ships. He
relentlessly pursued the Pompeians
who were surprised by his celeritas
It took Caesar's augmented legions
less than six months - to August, 49
- to break the resistance of the port
of Massilia (Marseilles), which had
effectively declared for Pompey,
and to destroy Pompey's armies in
Spain.
October- Caesar appointed
Dictator in Rome


Caesar wrote to Cicero.
“Have no doubt that many
times I
have been
grateful to you…This is no
more than you deserve.
First though, I implore you
and draw on your counsel,
goodwill, dignity and
assistance of every kind.”
•The main confrontation came
when Caesar attempted to
use the State Treasury.
•Metellus stood in front of the
Treasury and imposed his
veto. The soldiers ignored this
and using axes chopped the
doors down
•However Caesar wished to
present a façade of normality.
•The praetor Marcus Lepidus
appointed Caesar as Dictator
but Caesar was to be elected
as Consul for 48BC,
unorthodox but legal..
•After just 11 days Caesar
resigned as Dictator and set
out to pursue Pompey
Transporting the legions across the
Adriatic
Dyrrachium, The importance of
Logistics
Dyrrhachium was one of the rare defeats in
Tactics of Seige and
Caesar's career, which he readily admitted:
starvation
"Today my enemies would have finished the
war if they had a commander who knew how to
win a victory." (Appian, II, 62). But as Caesar
was consistent, so also was Pompey. At the
critical moment, he hesitated and lost his chance
of
delivering the decisive blow. When Caesar
rallied his soldiers and moved southeast, hoping
to lure Pompey away from his all-important
supply lines, Pompey initially pursued him but
then gave it up after a few days, holding war
councils instead about what to do next. He
apparently viewed what was to come largely as a
mopping-up operation. He finally set off after
Caesar only to meet him at Pharsalus.
Dyrrachium



Pompeys fleet offshore was unable to land because of
Caesar’s blockade and the commander Bibulus died of
disease, fatigue and starvation.
Caesar’s troops also short of food resorted to using
barley for bread ( usually used as animal feed.) and the
root of a plant called charax.
When Pompey heard this he commented that he was
fighting beasts not soldiers.
Trusting your Instincts
•But he [Pompey] had around him a
great number of senators of equal
status to himself .Some of them
lacked experience; some were
unreasonably elated by the
successes at Dyrrhachium; some
also by their superiority in numbers;
and some were thoroughly tired of
the war and keen to put an unduly
rapid end to it. They all urged
Pompeius to fight, constantly
drawing his attention to Caesar, who
kept on forming up his army and
offering battle.. "
• Appian, The Civil War, II, 67
Goldsworthy
“
Another man might perhaps have been
able to adhere to the course that he knew
to be wiser but Pompeius’ concern for the
good opinion of men betrayed him.”
Tactics
view documentary
http://www.geocities.com/i_s_s_alpha/Pharsalus.html
Clemencia


" When Pompeius' left wing crumbled, even then the
legionaries retreated step by step still locked in battle,
while the allies retreated headlong, making no
resistance and shouting 'We've lost.'.Caesar then made
a particularly shrewd move to avoid another trial of
strength and to ensure that the result decided not an
isolated battle, but the whole campaign. He sent heralds
into the ranks all over the battlefield, who ordered the
victors not to harm their fellow-countrymen, but attack
only the allies.Caesar's men, sweeping through them,
began to kill the allies, who were unable to resist, and
the most tremendous carnage ensued. "
Appian, The Civil War, II, 80
Pompey flees Pharsalus
Not only did Pompey not fight
with his soldiers but on
seeing the battle turn in
favour of the Caesarions he
returned to camp, gathered
his goods and headed for
Egypt where he would rely on
the gratitude of Ptolemy
Auletes son.

"In Pompey's camp could be seen artificial arbors, a
great weight of silver plate laid out, tents spread with
fresh turf and . . . covered with ivy, and many other
indications of extravagant indulgence and confidence in
victory; so that it could readily be judged that they had
no fears for the outcome of the day." Caesar, III, 96
In Caesar’s own words
"They would have it so. I, Gaius Caesar, should
have been condemned despite all my
achievements had I not appealed to my army for
help."
 "…they all thought only of offices, financial
rewards, vengeance on their personal enemies
and of how to exploit their victory instead of how
to win it."

Pompey flees to Egypt where Ptolemy V11 presents his head to
Caesar .Caesar is supposed to have wept, distraught at the loss of a
former friend and accorded him an honorouble Roman burial
Caesar and Cleopatra
Another lesson
BELLUM ALEXANDRINUM
1.
2.
Caesar arrived in Alexandria , wept at the sight of Pompey’s head and
became embroiled in the dynastic dispute between Ptolemy X111 and her
sister Cleopatra. Caesar insisted that according to their fathers will, they
should rule jointly. He also insisted that the unpaid taxes to Rome should
be paid immediately. Pothinus the eunich as Regent to the boy king and
his General Achillas summoned an army of 20,000 soldiers and besieged
Caesar and his men in the Royal Quarters. They poisoned the canal water
leading to the Royal Palace and Caesar and his men were forced to dig
wells to obtain drinking water. At one point flaming archers were used to
fire at Egyptian ships, however the fire became uncontrollable and spread
to the library of Alexandria, famed as the most extensive in the world.
The siege continued for many months
with much of the fighting taking place in
the streets against Egyptian civilians.
Caesar tried to break the stranglehold of
the Egyptian fleet in the harbor, by using
his own small Roman fleet to gain
control of Pharos Island. Caesar
remarked that whoever controlled the
island, controlled Alexandria. Fighting
was intense, Caesar’s troops
outnumbered and Caesar was forced to
call a retreat, jumping from his own ship
and swimming back to the Royal quarter.
3.
Arsinoe, Cleopatra’s sister,
held by Caesar, escaped and
made her way to Achillas
camp, where she and her
advisor Gannymede, poisoned
Achillas and took control of
the army. ( major sibling
rivalry!!!)
In 2004 marine archaeologists
claim to have discovered the
remains of the palace as well as
the remains of the library. The
remains clearly suggest a much
later burning of the library after
the Arab invasion.
4.
A relief army consisting of Rome’s allies, headed by Mithridates of
Pergamum and about 3,000 jews appeared in the Eastern Delta, having
come overland from Syria. The strong presence of Jews , led by Hyrcanus
and Antipater ( father of Herod the Great)swayed the resident Jews in
favour of Caesar. Caesar , left a small contingent in the Royal Quarters
and with one legion made his way to the Delta, to join the allied forces
and defeat Arsinoe’s army. The outcome was a function of the
effectiveness of Roman short sword fighting against the Egyptian long
spears. Ptolemy fled down the river but his boat sank and the boy king
drowned. Cleopatra was installed as legitimate ruler and Caesar then
remained in Alexandria for the next 2 months, causing the resentment of
his troops.
Battles over three Continents



ZELA, SYRIA 47BC
THAPSUS, AFRICA 46BC
MUNDA SPAIN 46/45 BC
ZELA CAESAR QUICKEST
VICTORY

As Caesar was starting to build his camp near Pharnaces,
he was amazed when the Pontic forces began forming for
battle just in front of his camp. Thinking it was a mere show
of force on Pharnaces’ part, Caesar’s men kept working on
their camp. But the Pontic army began advancing on the
Roman position. When it became apparent that the enemy
actually intended to do battle, the Romans had little time to
assemble. Then the Pontic scythed chariots charged
forward, adding to the confusion in the Roman ranks. The
chariots were eventually driven back by missile fire. As the
main lines came into contact, the VI legion on the right
pushed the Pontic forces back in hard fighting. Elsewhere
along the line, victory came more slowly, but in the end
almost all of Pharnaces’ army was captured or killed. The
report of the battle Caesar sent back to Rome was
famously brief: “Veni, vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I
conquered.)
Battle of Zela

”Five days after his arrival [approximately August 1, and
four hours after catching site of Pharnaces, Caesar won
a crushing victory at Zela; and commented drily on
Pompey’s good fortune in having built up his reputation
for generalship by victories over such poor stuff as this
Over a year later, at Caesar’s Pontic triumph, one of the
decorated wagons carried only a simple three word
inscription, now part of the legend, describing the swift
savagery of Caesar’s victory: VENI, VIDI, VICI ("I came,
I saw, I conquered").
BATTLE OF THAPSUS

Caesar opposed the pachyderms with light archers and slingers,
while taking personal command of his right wing. As the battle
began, volleys of missiles sent the elephants reeling. At nearly the
same time, Caesar’s infantry, eager for battle, attacked without
orders. Many of the elephants stampeded into the center of
Caesar’s line, where the 5th legion Alaudae ( the Larks) was
advancing. The 5th was a Gallic legion, recruited in Transalpine
Gaul. The Larks bravely stood firm against the elephants, and later
adopted the elephant as their legionary symbol. Caesar’s horse
countered a Numidian cavalry charge and forced them to flee. After
the failed charge, the Pompeian line crumbled and the rout was on.
Pompeian resistance in Africa had been crushed
TACTICS AND DETERMINATION
A coin minted to
pay Caesar’s
troops during the
Civil War
The FINAL BATTLE MUNDA
It is at this battle that Caesar faces Trebonius,
Labienus, Sextus and Gneus Pompey
Fighting for his Life

Pompey deployed in a strong hill top position so Caesar was faced with an uphill
battle. Rather than maneuver for advantage, Caesar uncharacteristically ordered a
frontal assault on the strong enemy position. Caesar’s cavalry and light troops
attacked both enemy wings but gained no advantage. Some of the hardest fighting in
Caesar’s life unfolded as the two armies slogged it out. The Pompeians fought with
true desperation, for many of those soldiers had been pardoned by Caesar, and then
deserted back to Pompey. For them there would be no second chances. Finally,
Caesar’s 10th legion on the right managed to push the opposing forces back.
Pompey, under council of Labienus, ordered troops to move from his right to the
threatened left flank. Caesar’s cavalry on the left saw the move and made a mighty
charge that pushed back the Pompeian right wing. The faltering of both wings
eventually caused the raw legions in Pompey’s center to bolt back toward the town.
About 30,000 Pompeians died – most slaughtered in the rout. Gnaeus Pompey died
with them, and also Titus Labienus


" For a moment his troops panicked, and Caesar, who
only a few months before had the world at his feet, gave
way to terror at the thought of dying on some remote
Spanish battlefield. Men remembered that he had 'the
look of death on his face' as he plunged into battle; his
sudden appearance stemmed the rout. 'On other
occasions I fought for victory,' he said, 'but today I fought
for my life.' The Roman historian Velleius Paterculus
writes that the battle was the bloodiest and most
perilous Caesar had ever fought. It was also to be his
last."
Robert Payne, Horizon Ancient Rome,121
Why did Caesar win the Civil War?
1.His army was better and faster, allowing him
always to be on the offensive. His veterans were
seasoned from the Gallic campaigns and he made use
of Gallic cavalry.
 2.Caesar’s financial base was strong enough to
reward his veterans. In the post Marius era, a
generals ability to support the soldiers was
paramount in determining his own invincibility.
 3.Caesar demonstrated repeatedly, his clemencia to
opponents and was thus able to gather forces to his
side; “ Caesar…incorporated in his own forces all
the contingents of troops which were being raised for
Pompey in the various states..”

Reasons for victory
4.Pompey’s strategy was to defeat Caesar using
superior naval power. Whereas Caesar had 11
legions, Pompey commanded 7 in Spain and 2 in
Italy. In the east however Pompey could call on his
clients to supply huge contingents. Caesar did not
have a fleet and hence did not pursue him
 5.Caesar ,knowing the importance of logistics
concentrated on Spain and as well occupied grain
supplying Sardinia and Sicily
 6.In Spain, despite the disadvantage of blocked
supply routes from floodwaters, Caesar built ships
and a bridge. His personal qualities of daring
relentlessness and celeritas, already shown in Gaul
were now ensuring victory in Spain.

Reasons for Victory



7. At the battle of Dyrrachium the nature of generalship proved
important. Although Pompey had gained the upper hand and had
encircled Caesar’s troops, fearing an ambush, he did not pursue.
As Pompey pursued Caesar into Thessaly, he was reluctant to
expose his troops to the more experienced legions of Caesar, but he
allowed himself to be pressured by the nobles in the camp who were
bent on a quick victory
On the plain of Pharsalus generalship and tactics decided the
outcome. Pompey’s forces were double that of Caesar’s. When
Caesar saw the army drawn up, with a concentration of cavalry on
the left, Caesar quickly reinforced the left flank with 6 cohorts.
Despite the numerical disadvantage Caesar’s troops, seasoned, fit
and intensely loyal to him were able to defeat Pompey.
Plutarch
“ Pompey’s greatest mistake and Caesar’s
cleverist move was in having the battle so far
away from any naval engagement.”
 “The gift which contributed most largely to
Caesar's success was an abnormally energetic
ability to get things done. This was
conspicuously apparent in the occupation of
warfare in which he excelled all his rivals.... His
character was an amalgamation of genius,
method, culture, thoroughness, intellect and
industry.”
 Michael Grant

Cary, A History of Rome

“ The war between the
Caesarians and Pompeians was
unique among the conflicts of
ancient history in covering the
entire Mediterranean…In this
context the legions of Caesar
proved themselves the most
efficient infantry of ancient times
and their commander exploited
to the utmost their tactical skill
and endurance in marching and
entrenching.”
Historians on the Civil War
" For Caesar publicly declared that only two things were
needed to rule, soldiers and money, and armies could only
be held together with money… since the Roman citizen
force had inevitably changed into an army of professional
soldiers, the imperator with his veterans took the political
place of the patron and his clients. What some had feared
and others aspired to, for decades, was fully realized in the
person of Caesar; the conqueror of Gaul whom the old
powers refused to recognize overwhelmed all resistance
and, on the strength of an authority based solely on the
loyalty of his soldiers, was reaching for the government of
the Empire."
 Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman

Epilogue: Triumph and Tragedy
it was estimated that the display of spoils in the processions totaled over 300 million sesterce.
This grand total was partially doled out to Caesar's veterans and the population of Rome.
His surviving veterans received 5,000 denarii (20,000 sesterce) each, the Centurions received
10,000 and his Tribunes 20,000 denarii each. The citizens of Rome received 300 sesterce
each, were treated to a lavish dinner on a grand scale and were additionally given a free grain
and oil dole amounting to 10 pecks and 10 pounds respectively. The games, held in the Circus
Maximus, were spectacular as well. Over 1,000 gladiators fought in combat, countless animals
were slaughtered and the Campus Martius was flooded to provide a mock naval battle. The
triumphs of Caesar did much to secure the love of the people, and alleviate their fears, but the
Senate would prove to be another story.