Goal #2: Expansion and Reform (1801-1850),
assess the competing forces of expansionism
[The Continuing Struggle for Union]
2.01: Analyze the effects of territorial expansion and the admission of
new states to the Union 1801-1850
Territorial Expansion, 1790-1824
Treaty of Greenville: After U.S.
troops routed the Indians at the Battle
of Fallen Timbers. In 1795, the
Indians agreed to the treaty that paid
them $10,000 per year for their land in
southern Ohio and Indiana, and
enclaves at Detroit, Chicago,
Cleveland, and Vincennes, Illinois.
Pinckney’s Treaty: Treaty negotiated by Thomas Pinckney, minister to Spain, to
settle a dispute over the boundary between the U.S. and Spain in West Florida. Spain
claimed all land south of the Tennessee River. The treaty settled on a line at 31 degrees
latitude, from the Chattahoochee River to the Mississippi.
The Louisiana Purchase
As Spain gave its Louisiana Territory to France, President Jefferson worried that
Napoleon would close the Port of New Orleans, making trade via the Mississippi,
Ohio, and Tennessee Rivers too expensive or impossible. Jefferson planned to buy
New Orleans for $9 million, but Napoleon offered all of the Louisiana Territory for
$15 million. Although he had no clear constitutional authority to do so, Jefferson
made the purchase.
Napoleon Signs the Louisiana Cession
The total amount of land bought according to the treaty was imprecise, but it included
‘all the lands drained by the waters of the Mississippi River.’ The purchase more than
doubled the size of the U.S., extending the nation west to the Continental Divide in the
Rocky Mountains.
Lewis & Clark Expedition
Trip by the Corps of Discovery, led by
Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) and William Clark
(1770-1838) with the help of Shoshone Indian
guide Sacajawea, to explore the West. Although
planned well before, it took on new importance
after the Louisiana Purchase. It began in St. Louis
in 1804, went along the Missouri River through
the Rocky Mountains onto the Columbia River
and to the Pacific Ocean. Returning to
Washington in 1807, the expedition was a great
success. They did not find the hoped-for total
water route to the Pacific, but Lewis and Clark
mapped the territory, brought back animal and
plant artifacts, and firmed up the U.S. claim to
the region. They also started an explosion of
commerce in the region, expanding the fur trade.
“The whole of East Florida [must be] seized and held as an indemnity for the
outrages of Spain upon the property of our citizens. This done, it puts all opposition
down . . . and saves us from a war with Great Britain of some of the Continental
powers combined with Spain.” – Andrew Jackson
Conquest of Florida: Pinckney’s Treaty of
1795 settled a border dispute with Spain east of
the Mississippi. But tensions picked up again as
Americans drifted southward testing the line.
After repeated skirmishes between Seminoles and
American settlers along the border, President
Monroe ordered Andrew Jackson to “pacify” the
region. Although he had no right to do so, he took
over Florida.* With the U.S. in possession of the
land, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams
backed Jackson. In the Adams-Onis Treaty (1819),
Spain gave Florida to the U.S. in return for a part
of Texas that the U.S. claimed. The Seminoles
continued to fight into the 1840s, but finally were
defeated and removed to the Indian Territory.
The United States in 1820
American Asserts Its Power
Monroe Doctrine: U.S. foreign policy created by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams
and declared by President James Monroe in his “State of the Union” message to Congress in
1823. It states, “The American continents are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for
future colonization by any European power.” The doctrine was directed at France, which
was eyeing the newly independent republics of South America, and at Russia, which had an
interest in Alaska. It succeeded because it had the unofficial backing of Great Britain and
the Royal Navy. The Monroe Doctrine demonstrates that the U.S. intended to become an
important international power.
Goal #2: Expansion and Reform (1801-1850), assess the
competing forces of expansionism
2.02: Describe how the growth of nationalism and sectionalism
were reflected in art, literature, and language
2.03: Distinguish between the economic and social issues that
led to sectionalism and nationalism
2.04: Assess political events, issues, and personalities that
contributed to sectionalism and nationalism
The First Industrial Revolution 1793-1850
Industrialization: Transformation of an economy from an agricultural base to an
industrial base – built largely on mechanization. Although it should not be overstated—the
U.S. experienced its first era of industrial development between 1813 and 1837. The
development of industries was built on a transportation revolution—the invention of the
steamboat (by Robert Fulton) and the coming of railroads. The first substantial industry in
America, the textile industry, developed in New England where factories turned southern
cotton into textiles. Industrialization also affected farming, as new inventions improved
crop production, harvesting, and processing.
Cotton Gin
Eli Whitney's invention that transformed American
agriculture and industry. The problem with cotton
cultivation is the seeds embedded in cotton bolls that must
be removed before the cotton can be turned into textiles.
Before the gin (short for engine), it took a man about a day
to process one pound of cotton. Whitney's small gin could
process about fifty pounds a day. An enlarged gin could
process much more. The gin made cotton cultivation
profitable. It sparked a demand for more land on which to
grow cotton and thus America expanded. It also
reinvigorated a slave labor system that had been in decline
since the Revolution. It provided a base for the early
industrial revolution in New England in the 1820s. The rise
of a textile industry drew the sections closer together as
purchaser and supplier, but the relationship was not
equally beneficial. The northern economy became more
complex, while the South became more dependent on one
crop –and became known as the Cotton Kingdom.
Revolution in Transportation and Communication
Robert Fulton: Inventor of the first commercially successful steamboat—The Clermont
which first steamed up the Hudson River in 1807. By 1836, 361 steam-driven paddle wheelers
were registered to navigate tributaries of the Mississippi River.
The Tom Thumb: First passenger train in
the U.S., it was invented by Peter Cooper in 1830
in Baltimore. It ran along rails at the incredible
speed of 10 miles an hour, but when challenged
to race a horse-drawn wagon, the train broke
down. Despite the inauspicious beginning,
railroads were faster and came to dominate longdistance travel and commerce in the U.S. over
the next two decades.
Samuel Morse: Inventor in the U.S. of the telegraph in
1837. The telegraph is an electro-magnetic transmitter that
interrupts an electric circuit and allows for transmission
of information. The telegraph was separately invented in
England. Morse’s more important contribution became
the Morse Code, a series of electrical “dots” and “dashes”
that became the alphabet of telegraphy.
Erie Canal: Man-made waterway, opened in 1826, connecting the Hudson River and
New York City to Lake Erie (Buffalo). It opened the West to trade because it linked the
Great Lakes as far as Duluth, Minn., and Chicago, Ill., to the Atlantic without having to
go through Canada. It lost some of its importance when railroads entered the scene.
“E-Ri-E Canal” by the Weavers
We were forty miles from Albany
Forget it I never shall
What a terrible storm we had one night
On the E-ri-e Canal
Chorus:
O, the E-ri-e was a-risin’
And the gin was a-getting’ low
I scarcely think we’ll get a drink
‘Til we get to Buffa-lo-o-o
‘Til we get to Buffalo
The barge was full of barley
The crew was full of rye
The captain he looked down at me
With a dag’gum wicked eye
Chorus
The captain he stood up on deck
With a spy-glass in his hand
The fog it was so dog gone thick
That he couldn’t spy the land
Chorus
Now two days out from Syracuse
The vessel struck a shoal
We like to all be foundered
On a chunk o’ Lackawanna coal
Chorus
O the cook she was a grand old gal
She wore a ragged dress
We like to hoist her up the pole
As a signal of distress
Chorus
Now the captain he got married
The cook she went to jail
And I’m the only son-of-a-sea cook
Left to tell the tale
Chorus twice
Steps to Creating a National Economy: The Marshall Court
Fletcher v. Peck (1810): The State of Georgia granted part of the future Alabama and
Mississippi to the Yazoo Land Company in 1794. When the public discovered that many
legislators had been bribed to make the deal, the people voted them out of office and the
new Georgia legislature repealed the grant. But some of the land had already been sold;
so the new owners sued for breach of contract. The Marshall Court ruled that the new
owners were protected under the Contract Clause (Art. I, Sect. 10). Under this decision,
the Supreme Court asserted the power to overturn state laws.
Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816): Virginia case involving inheritance and the
Treaty of Paris (1783). To attack Loyalists during the Revolution, a Virginia law said no
“enemy” could inherit land. When Martin, a British citizen, tried to sell land he had
inherited, Virginia took it. Martin sued and lost in Virginia court. He appealed to the U.S.
Supreme Court. The Marshall Court accepted the case, setting the precedent that the U.S.
Supreme Court can hear appeals and reverse state court rulings.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): Piggy-backing on the Fletcher precedent,
the Marshall Court ruled that the State of New Hampshire could not alter the 1769 charter
of Dartmouth College because the Court ruled the charter to a contract. Under this decision,
corporate charters are protected by the Contract Clause and states may not regulate them.
Daniel Webster argued the case on behalf of Dartmouth College.
McColloch v. Maryland (1819): Supreme Court decision deriving from Maryland’s
attempt to tax federal bank notes. Chief Justice Marshall rejected Maryland’s claim that
states had created the federal government, ruling instead that it was created directly by
the people (“We the People”). The decision relates to federalism; Marshall ruled that the
national government’s power is limited but “is supreme within its sphere of action.”
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Arising out of a controversy involving Fulton’s steamboat
and navigation of the Hudson River. The New York state assembly gave Fulton and his
partner exclusive rights (a monopoly) to steamboat traffic on the river. They then granted a
contract to Aaron Ogden. But because the Hudson forms the boundary between two states,
New York and New Jersey, Thomas Gibbons sued claiming that he should have access to
the river also. The Marshall Court unanimously ruled in favor of Gibbons, saying that the
Constitution gives sole right to regulate interstate commerce to the federal government and
no such power may be exercised by any state. This further established the power of the
federal government, as Marshall wanted. It also sparked dramatic development of
steamboat navigation and set the precedent for similar questions involving railroads in the
1830s and afterward.
Economic Collapse: The Panic of 1819
First national crisis of the boom and bust business cycle in U.S. history, it led to a depression and
affected public trust in banks for a generation.
As with any economic catastrophe, its causes are complex. The War of 1812 had created more debt
for the U.S., but a postwar boom gave the impression of solvency, generating widespread
speculation. As usual, there was too little hard currency (specie) in the economy; so banks printed
paper money, causing rampant inflation. The expansion of paper money set the stage for potential
disaster if anyone decided to ask what the real value of money was. Meanwhile, uncontrolled
lending weakened banks to the point where it was said that barely six banks in the country could
have met their obligations if they fell due. Added to this, the crudeness of the frontier economy
opened opportunities for criminal activity: check-kiting and counterfeiting. Then, in 1818, the price
of cotton soared to over 32 cents a pound, causing the British to look for alternative sources in India
and Egypt, causing the price in the U.S. to fall to 14.3 cents. The price drop sent shock waves through
the economy as debts were called by banks and as demand for other U.S. goods dried up. Loans went
unpaid and banks went out of business, causing the economic bubble to burst.
Many blamed the Bank of the United States (BUS) for the crash. Under its 1816 charter, the BUS
was required to pay out in specie upon request. With too little hard currency available in the U.S., it
bought specie from Britain at a premium, putting the BUS in debt, too. When Congress issued a
report on the administration of the BUS, the dominoes began to fall. It discovered that many
branches of the BUS, notably the Baltimore branch, were rife with corruption. The collapse of the
Baltimore branch caused a ripple effect of panic through Maryland and the South, ultimately sending
the economy into depression.
One of the more important results of the Panic and depression was that for the first time several
states enacted relief legislation, including: stay laws, placing a moratorium on collection of debts;
and setting minimum appraisal laws, restricting the auction price of defaulted property. The other
significant result was a lingering distrust for the BUS.
Jacksonian America 1820-1850
Andrew Jackson
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Daniel Webster
Andrew Jackson, 1767-1845:
Born in the Catawba Valley near the North CarolinaSouth Carolina border, he learned the law in Salisbury
before venturing west to Tennessee. A one-time Judge,
slave-owner and slave-trader, hero of the Battle of New
Orleans, he ran for President in 1824 and, in a four way
race, won more of the popular vote but not a majority of
the Electoral College, thus leading to what Jacksonians
called the “corrupt bargain.” He ran again in 1828,
calling himself an agent for the common man and took
two-thirds of the electoral vote. In office, he removed
any political opponents from government jobs using the
patronage power and gave the jobs to his supporters,
creating the “spoils system.” He governed as an
opponent of centralized government and the American
System, and often let personal hatreds interfere with
policy. Because of his hatred of Henry Clay and Nicolas
Biddle, he killed the Second Bank of the United States.
Like most Westerners, he hated Indians and as POTUS
he treated them ruthlessly. His hatred for John C.
Calhoun determined his response to South Carolina's
attempt to nullify a protective tariff in 1833.
“Harry of the West,” 1777-1852
Henry Clay was one of the four most important
politicians in the U.S. in the first half of the
nineteenth century. A Kentuckian, represented the
West and was the leading nationalist in Congress
from the 1812 war to his death in 1852. He ran for
president three times as a National Republican or
a Whig, never winning. He held such important
positions as Secretary of State and Speaker of the
House. At critical points, he put together
agreements between the different sections and
competing factions in the country, earning the
name the “Great Compromiser.” He fashioned the
Missouri Compromise (1820-21); the Compromise
of 1833--settling the tariff dispute between South
Carolina and Congress to end the Nullification
Crisis; and the Compromise of 1850. In retrospect,
his compromises helped delay what many
historians consider the inevitable civil war until
the Union was in a position to win.
John C. Calhoun, 1782-1850: Born on the frontier of western
South Carolina of Scots-Irish stock, Calhoun was a hard-headed
politician, he came to represent the South in the federal
government from the War of 1812 to the very day of his death in
1850. He was Secretary of War under Monroe and Vice-POTUS to
John Quincy Adams and then to Andrew Jackson. He resigned the
office, however, in 1831 after a long conflict with Jackson and went
on to lead the state’s attempt to nullify the “Tariff of
Abominations” in 1833. In 1850, fearing the South would be a
permanent minority and forced to bow to the will of the free North
and West, he reluctantly called for secession if slavery were not
allowed to spread into the territories.
Daniel Webster, 1782-1852: Born in New Hampshire, he
represented Massachusetts in the Senate. An expert lawyer, he
represented Dartmouth College and the federal government in the
important 1819 cases involving the right of contract and taxing of
federal bank notes. In 1830, he defended the nationalists in a
famous debate with South Carolina’s Robert Hayne (John C.
Calhoun). As Secretary of State in the 1840s, he negotiated
important treaties with Britain and expanded U.S. territory. He was
known as the greatest debater in the Senate. So great that Stephen
Vincent Benet wrote a play, The Devil and Daniel Webster, in which
Webster debated Satan in court and won the case.
The American System: Clay’s plan to strengthen the nation. It called for creating a
new national bank, imposing protective tariffs, and spending federal tax money on
internal improvements, such as building the National Road (from Cumberland, MD to
Vandalia, IL) to unite the country, improve trade and national defense. As the sections
split over internal improvements in the 1820s, it began the decay of the “era of good
feelings.” Clay and John Quincy Adams represented a Nationalist-Republican faction,
while Jackson and John C. Calhoun represented a Democratic-Republican faction. Those
who opposed internal improvements usually balked at using federal money to pay for
what oftentimes were local projects entirely within a state (such as the Maysville Road,
in Kentucky) or which seemed to benefit one section more than another.
Industrial Workers
Lowell Girls: Farm girls who worked in the textile mills
in Lowell. Girls were preferred as workers because the
company did not have to pay them as much as men and
because they tended to be more docile, controllable
laborers. The Merrimack Manufacturing Co. created what it
hoped would be a model industrial town, known as the
Lowell system. Next to the water-powered mill, it built
dormitories to provide safe and comfortable housing for
workers; kitchens for regular prepared meals; and lecture
halls and libraries for worship, education, and cultural
events, and all in a park-like setting along the Merrimack
River. Although conditions were very good at first, by the
mid-1830s, age had eroded much of the town pleasant
appeal and an economic depression caused the company to
cut wages and services. By 1840, the thirty-two mills and
factories in Lowell turned the town into a commonplace
grimy industrial town.
Craft Workers’ Manifesto (1827): Declaration by skilled mechanics of Philadelphia,
complaining about poor working conditions and low wages; it condemns businesses that
put profit ahead of the welfare of workers; and calls on mechanics to unite to force
businesses to improve working conditions. Recalling Jefferson’s arguments against the
“slavery” of the workshop, it declares, “all who toil have a natural and unalienable right to
reap the fruits of their own industry.”
Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Hunt (1842): Massachusetts Supreme Court
case involving the legality of trade unionism. To combat poor working conditions, dropping
wages, and job insecurity, many craftsmen or skilled workers formed trade unions. The
most significant of them were the Mechanics’ Union of Trade Associations, which included
carpenters, shoemakers, bricklayers, and others; and the National Trades’ Union. Businesses
obviously opposed the unions, accusing them of being “combinations” or monopolies
designed to raise the price of labor. In Commonwealth v. Hunt, the state court ruled that
forming a union was legal and the union could demand that only union members be hired.
It represented a small step toward empowering workers.
“The Corrupt Bargain”: An alleged deal between Henry Clay and John Quincy
Adams in the disputed 1824 election. With four candidates for POTUS (including
William Crawford) Andrew Jackson took the most votes, but did not win a majority in
the Electoral College. The election was thrown to the House, which voted for Adams.
Supporters of Jackson believed Clay agreed to support Adams in return being named
Secretary of State. Both men denied the charge (and Adams in particular was a man of
high honor) and no evidence exists to prove it occurred, but it created deep animosity
between Clay and Jackson and started what has been called the Era of Hard Feelings.
CANDIDATES FOR THE 1828 PRESIDENCY
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS
• Reputation as the greatest secretary of state in the nation’s brief history.
• Reputation as being highly intelligent and hardworking.
• Called Jackson “incompetent both by his ignorance and by the fury of his passions.”
ANDREW JACKSON
• Reputation as a hero at the Battle of New Orleans.
• Fiery personality earned him the nickname “Old Hickory” after a tough, hard wood
found on the frontier.
• Portrayed himself as a common man’s candidate.
• Attacked Adams as an out-of-touch aristocrat.
Jacksonian Democracy
Universal White Male Suffrage: During the 1820s, states across the nation began
eliminating property restrictions on voting. In the 1828 election, Andrew Jackson, a
backwoods South Carolinian born in log cabin, took advantage of the development. He
claimed to represent the “common man,” and common men voted for him in droves: he
won 56% of the popular vote.
Spoils System: Policy initiated by Andrew Jackson of granting government jobs and
contracts to political supporters. After the 1828 election, Jackson swept government
workers out of office and replaced them with supporters, declaring “to the victor goes the
spoils.” He repeatedly removed cabinet members who did not obey his demands, going
through five Treasury Secretaries. But he also demanded that the most basic government
jobs be filled by supporters. He called the system “rotation in office” and claimed it gave
more people an opportunity to benefit from government jobs. Opponents called it the
“spoils system.” The spoils system helped build a Democratic Party, as men supported
Jackson in return for political patronage. But it politicized minor government jobs and
meant that many office holders had no other qualification to work other than being a
Jacksonian Democrat.
Whig Party: As Jackson removed political
opponents from government jobs, two political
parties emerged: the Democratic Party of Andrew
Jackson and the Whig Party. Two things united
Whigs: (1) hatred of Jackson, and (2) like Federalists
before them, a belief in a stronger central government
and Hamilton’s economic system. Whigs were led by
Henry Clay who ran as the party candidate for
POTUS twice times but never won. The Whigs
gained strength on the national level during the
1840s, notably with Presidents William Henry
Harrison and Zachary Taylor, but internal divisions
over the issue of slavery hampered the party’s
growth. When Clay and other leaders died, and
slavery became a national issue in the early 1850s, the
party split and then collapsed.
POLITICAL VIEWS OF THE WHIG AND DEMOCRAT
PARTIES IN THE MID -1830S
WHIGS:
• Encouraged industrial and commercial development
• Supported creation of a centralized economy
• Advocated for expansion of the federal government
DEMOCRATS:
• Distrusted unchecked business growth
• Favored a limited federal government
How were the Whigs different from the Democrats?
A The Whigs wanted more industry, but the Democrats wanted a centralized economy.
B The Whigs distrusted business growth, but the Democrats wanted more commercial
development.
C The Whigs wanted to expand the federal government, but Democrats wanted to limit it.
D The Whigs wanted growth in government, but the Democrats wanted growth in business.
Anti-Masonic Party: The first “Third Party” to participate in a presidential election. As
male suffrage grew, many newcomers to politics questioned the power of the old political
elite. They feared a conspiracy to take power from the people. They focused on the Order of
Freemasons, a “secret society” whose members held many high positions in government
and business, and whose membership in the past had included most of the important
founders of the country, including George Washington. In 1831, New York Masons were
accused of murdering a former member who had revealed the order’s secrets. The incident
caused tremendous hostility for the fraternity and the Anti-Masons hoped to win elective
office on the opposition. They did not win, but they were the first party to hold a
nominating convention and to establish a campaign platform.
God Favors Our Undertakings
Square and Compasses
New Order of the Ages
Indian Removal Act: After settlers pushed into Indian lands, causing conflict,
Congress approved President Jackson’s plan to move Indians to the “Great American
Desert” west of Arkansas. Many tribes fought removal. In Illinois, militia slaughtered the
Sauk and Fox Indians in “Black Hawk’s War.” In Florida, Seminoles fought in Osceola’s
War and were all but wiped out. Those who lived were removed to the Indian Territory.
Trail of Tears: Gold was discovered on Cherokee land and whites wanted access to it,
but the Cherokee refused to yield. They went to court to fight a Georgia law that brought
the Cherokee under state control. In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Supreme Court
ruled the law unconstitutional because the Cherokee were a treaty nation and under
federal jurisdiction. President Andrew Jackson, however, refused to enforce the court’s
ruling (saying, “Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it!”) Instead,
Jackson bought the Cherokee land and sold them land in the Indian Territory. The Army
led a forced removal from Georgia of the Cherokee in the winter of 1836. Walking 800
miles during winter, more than one-quarter of the Cherokee died. Some hid out in the
mountains of North Carolina and eventually received title to federal lands and became
the “Eastern Band” of the Cherokees.
Nullification Controversy: Tariff Policy in the Age of Jackson I
A renewal of the conflict over whether states could
nullify federal law as Madison argued in the
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798).
It involved a protective tariff. John C. Calhoun opposed
the 1828 tariff, calling it the “Tariff of Abominations”
because it forced southern and western farmers to pay
more for manufactured items and it made it harder for
them to export their farm products. South Carolina
insisted it was unconstitutional and refused to collect
the tax. Calhoun secretly authored the South Carolina
Exposition and Protest in which he offered the
“Compact” theory of the Union. Because he was
running for Vice-President he did not want his identity
as the author known. The issue would continue to fester
for five more years.
Webster-Hayne Debate: In 1830, the issue of state’s rights grew into an impassioned
debate between Senator Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina and Daniel Webster. They
debated the question of the nature of the Union. Hayne took up John Calhoun’s statecompact theory, arguing that states could check national power, determining when the
national government had gone too far and nullifying federal law. States had the power of
“interposition” – the power to protect a citizen of the state from federal government.
Webster, a Whig, countered that the
Constitution was a contract between
the people and government, that
sovereignty rested in the people and
state and federal governments were
their agents. “Liberty and Union,” he
proclaimed, “now and forever, one
and inseparable.” A majority in the
Senate sided with Webster.
Nullification Controversy: The Compromise of 1833
Andrew Jackson was viewed as supporting states’ rights
because of his criticism of Clay, Adams, and the
American System. But he opposed anything that might
threaten the U.S. as a nation or his power as President.
South Carolina’s continued challenges to the tariff
threatened both. At a banquet celebrating Thomas
Jefferson in 1830, Jackson was asked to give a toast.
Staring Calhoun in the face, he declared, “Our Union—
It must be preserved.” Calhoun spilled his drink, then
responded saying, “The Union, next to our liberty most
dear!” The event was the latest in the on-going political
battle of nerves. Jackson over the next year continued to
consolidate his power in the presidency, kicking
Calhoun’s supporters out of the cabinet.
“I consider, then, the power to annul a law in the United States . . . Incompatible
with the existence of the Union, contradicted by the letter of the Constitution,
unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was
founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed. . . . The laws
of the United States must be executed.” –Andrew Jackson, 1832
In the 1832 election, the issue of the tariff predominated. South Carolina enacted a
nullification law, refusing to collect the tariff. Jackson demanded that Congress empower
him to send troops to force South Carolina to collect the tariff. Calhoun resigned the VicePresidency. A new ticket of Jackson and Martin Van Buren was elected in November.
Congress passed the Force Bill. But now South Carolina threatened secession. The country
was on the verge of civil war. Henry Clay, Jackson’s old nemesis, stepped in to create a
compromise that defused the situation. The Compromise of 1833 lowered the tariff rate
over time so that it was eventually a revenue tariff. South Carolina agreed with the new
tariff, but then called the Force Act null and void. Both sides claimed victory. Jackson said
that South Carolina backed down because of the threat of force; South Carolina won a
smaller tariff.
The Monster Bank
The charter of the Second Bank of the U.S.
was set to expire in 1836, but in 1832 the
bank’s manager, Nicholas Biddle, requested
it be renewed early. Bank supporters,
including Henry Clay and Daniel Webster,
agreed, wanting to renew the charter while
they held a majority in Congress. One of the
main duties of the bank was to control
monetary policy by controlling the amount
of hard currency in the economy—too much
paper money could lead to inflation. Jackson
opposed the bank, believing that it took
power away from the states and
remembering the trauma caused by the
Panic of 1819. Jackson believed that the
McCulloch case had been wrongly decided.
Many working-class Americans did not trust
the bank.
Congress passed the renewal bill, but Jackson vetoed it and removed federal deposits from
the national bank, putting them in “pet state banks” instead. As a result, a main organizing
mechanism of the economy was eliminated, paving the way for rapid chaotic currency
expansion from state to state. The inflationary spiral continued to build until 1836 when
Clay tried to regain control over currency by forcing banks to exchange paper money for
specie – hard currency, through the Specie Circular of 1836. The effort came too late; the
economy crashed and America witnessed the Panic of 1837 and subsequent depression.
“The Little Magician”: Jackson’s second VicePOTUS, Martin Van Buren, had earned this nickname
for being able to manipulate New York politics.
Jackson chose not to run in 1836 and picked Van Buren
as his successor. Van Buren won the first clear twoparty election since before the War of 1812,
representing the party now calling themselves
Democrats and defeating three Whig candidates.
Although not incompetent, Van Buren is considered
only an average POTUS because he had the
unfortunate luck of having to govern during the
economic depression of the late 1830s and did little to
turn the economy around. Van Buren was renominated
by the Democrats in 1840, but lost the election.
Panic of 1837: Amid the monetary crisis in America, depression in England spilled
over to the U.S. in 1837. England stopped buying American cotton. The price of cotton
dropped, breaking the southern economy. English investment in northern industries and
railroads dried up. A poor wheat crop broke western farmers. Creditors foreclosed on
farms. Banks failed. Prices crashed. Businesses panicked, throwing thousands out of work
– unemployment approached 35%. Without government welfare, the jobless had to turn to
churches and voluntary societies for help. The Van Buren administration responded by
holding back tax rebates to the people and by printing paper money to cover immediate
expenses. The economic distress opened the door for Whigs to end the Jacksonians’ hold
on the presidency.
Immigration
The mid-1800s saw a spike in immigration,
particularly from Ireland and southern
Germany. Between 1830 and 1860, nearly 5
million people immigrated to the U.S., almost
half of them during the decade, 1845-1854. The
reasons for emigration were numerous and
diverse, but for all they included economic
opportunity. Most particularly, the Irish (1.6
million immigrants) sought escape from the
discrimination of the British and escape from
the Potato Famine that killed a million Irish
poor, starting in 1845. Like the Irish, the
southern Germans tended to be Catholic.
Unlike the Irish, they tended to settle in rural
areas. The increase in population and the
problems of assimilating the newcomers helped
to stoke the reforms of the Second Great
Awakening. They also caused backlash against
immigrants during hard economic times.
Years
Immigrants
1820-1829
128,502
1830-1839
538,381
1840-1849
1,427,337
1850-1859
2,814,554
1860-1869
2,081,261
1870-1879
2,742,287
1880-1889
5,248,568
1890-1899
3,694,294
1900-1909
8,202,388
1910-1919
6,347,380
1920-1929
4,295,510
1930-1939
699,375
1940-1949
856,608
1950-1959
2,499,268
1960-1969
3,213,749
1970-1979
4,248,203
1980-1989
6,244,379
1990-1999
9,775,390
Nativism: Anti-immigrant sentiment that arises
every time there is a large influx of newcomers. In
the 1830s, tension arose as Protestant “natives”
thought Catholic immigrants would have divided
loyalties with America and the Pope. Nativism
increased after the Panic of 1837, as immigrants
challenged “natives” for employment and as
many immigrants brought European expectations
of labor relations to business. Several nativist
political groups organized to lobby government to
restrict immigration, starting with the Native
American Association in 1837. By the late 1840s
and early 1850s, they represented a real political
movement, with the Order of the Star Spangled
Banner and the American Party. The American
Party was the most significant. Better known as
the Know-Nothing Party because when asked
about their organization they were supposed to
respond, “I know nothing.” The Know-Nothings
won several elections on the local level in 1854.
The anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic movement
died out as slavery became the political focus in
the late 1850s.
Cultural and Social Reform, 1820-1850
2.05 Identify the major reform movements and evaluate their
effectiveness
2.06 Evaluate the role of religion in the debate over slavery and
other social movements and issues
Hudson River School: Group of landscape painters working in upstate New York
during the 1830s and 40s. Their work represented a new American Romanticism,
emphasizing the beauty of the region and the huge scale of the natural world compared
to the relative smallness of humans. Some borrow from the Neo-Classical style of
Europe, showing Greek- or Roman-style structures in a pastoral surrounding. But most
of the work is uniquely American.
Second Great Awakening: Religious revival movement. It began in New England and
up-state New York (Burnt-Over District) and spread west. Its greatest proponent was
Charles Grandison Finney, who preached an extremely emotional approach to God, saying
that the spirit went through him “in waves and waves of liquid love.” Like its predecessor
in the 1740s, the second revival was caused by a belief that the nation was becoming too
materialistic and not being “a city upon a hill.” Some reforms had heavy nativist overtones,
however, as Protestant middle-class women fretted over assimilating poor Irish immigrants.
The revival led to the creation of several new churches [Shakers, Jehovah's Witness, Seventh
Day Adventist, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (the Mormons)]. It also
led to many social reform movements, including: temperance (Lyman Beecher), public
education (Horace Mann), prison reform (Dorothea Dix), women's rights, and abolitionism.
But abolitionism was the most significant
reform movement spurred by the Second
Great Awakening. The millennial spirit at
the core of the revival and the eradication
of sin that it demanded merged with
practical political and economic concerns as
America grew into new territories west of
the Mississippi to propel the country
toward an inevitable final conflict over
freedom and slavery. It led to the “Great
American Schism.”
Temperance: Reform movement that attacked alcohol use, which was so excessive in
the U.S. that one historian called America, “the Alcoholic Republic.” Several voluntary
societies organized to coerce men to pledge not to drink. When moral suasion failed,
temperance organizations, such as the American Temperance Society and the Washington
Temperance Society lobbied state legislatures to enact prohibition laws. Neil Dow
effectively prompted Maine to enact such a law (the “Maine Law”) in the 1850s.
Transcendentalism: Philosophical and literary movement developing out of
(1)
(2)
(3)
European Romanticism: a celebration of an heroic past symbolized by a recollection of
classical architecture, a retelling of Arthurian legend, and a closeness to nature
Unitarian-Universalism--a belief in the "oneness" of a benevolent God and the
essential goodness of man
American gnosticism--an individualistic approach to understanding and spirituality.
It countered the view of the basic sinfulness of man (thus running in a different direction
from the Second Great Awakening) and the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century, the
Age of Reason. It argued that some things are understood through intuition rather than
through science or experience; revelation rather than reason. It originated in 1836 in Concord
and Boston, Mass., with the Transcendental Club, which included: Henry David Thoreau,
Louisa May Alcott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Margaret Fuller, and Ralph Waldo Emerson
Utopian Societies
The Second Great Awakening created many experimental communities across the BurntOver District. Some farming, some industrial, they were based on communalism: all
settlers working together for the good of the community. Some were religious, others
secular. The Transcendentalists founded Brook Farm where girls, not just boys, got an
education and developed beliefs in pacifism. New Harmony, established by Robert Owen
in Indiana, was to be a model industrial town owned by the workers but went bankrupt.
The Shakers were a religious sect created by Mother Ann Lee in England in the 1770s. They
established communal farms in New England, Ohio, and Kentucky based on the equality
of women and men. They became best known for building high-quality, yet simply
designed furniture, and for musical composition (notably, “Simple Gifts”). The Shakers
followed a strict rule of celibacy, growing through adoption of orphans. John Humphrey
Noyes founded Oneida in upstate New York with about 200 residents who believed in
universal marriage; it was famous for making animal traps and high quality metalwork,
especially spoons.
Seneca Falls Convention: Meeting the women's suffrage and equal rights movement,
held at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. The movement was led by Lucretia Mott and
Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The Convention drew up a “Declaration of Sentiments,” stating
several demands, including the right to vote and to own property. Although the movement
showed considerable support and solid organization, it had unfortunate timing: it failed to
achieve its goals because it was drowned out by the slavery issue in the 1850s.
~Declaration of Sentiments~
When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one portion of the family of man to
assume among the people of the earth a position different from that which they have hitherto
occupied, but one to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to
the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes that impel them to such a
course. We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal; that
they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted, deriving their
just powers from the consent of the governed. Whenever any form of government becomes
destructive of these ends, it is the right of those who suffer from it to refuse allegiance to it, and to
insist upon the institution of a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and
organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed
for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to
which they were accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably
the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their duty to throw
off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient
sufferance of the women under this government, and such is now the necessity which constrains
them to demand the equal station to which they are entitled. . .