LATIN GRAMMAR NOTEBOOK
Your personal resource to organize all
those charts and rules, provided you
follow my instructions perfectly.
Verb Facts: The single most important
word of the sentence
Verb Facts: The Most Important
Words in Any Sentence
• What is a verb?
– Denotes an action or a state of being
– Essential to the sentence because it’s what is
happening!
Examples:
Types of Verbs
• Helping Verbs:
– In English, helping verbs tell when a verb is
happening ( was, is, had,have et al.)
– Latin never uses helping verbs; we use endings to
show when a verb happens
• Example
– Rex was laughing. Rex ridebat.
– Rex will laugh.
Rex ridebit.
Types of Verbs
• Linking verbs: show a state of being and link
two ideas
– Acts like a chain or an equals mark (=)
– The most common linking verb is sum ,esse, fui,
futurus in all its lovely forms
– Example
• Rex is a boy. (Rex = boy) Rex est puer
Types of Verbs
• Transitive verb: action verb which takes a direct object
( a noun that answers who or what after the verb)
– The action transfers to another word
– Example
• Rex hits Claudius. Rex Claudium pulsat.
• Intransitive verb: action verb that cannot take an
object
– The action stops at the verb and does not cross over to a
noun.
– Example
• Rex is sleeping. Rex dormit.
Agreement
• A singular verb must have a singular subject; a
plural verb must have a plural subject.
– Compound subjects are usually treated as plural
subjects
– Examples
• The girl is running. Puella currit
• The girls are running. Puellae currunt.
Principal Parts
• Most verb have four principal parts, always listed in a
specific order. These parts are used to make all the
other verb forms.
• Notice the patterns
– 1st principal part ends with “o”
• Used for present tense
– 2nd ends with “re”
• Present infinitive; used for present, imperfect, future
– 3rd end with “I”
• Perfect active; used for perfect, pluperfect, future perfect active
– 4th ends with “um” or “us”
• Perfect participle; used for perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
passive
Conjugations
• The conjugation of a verb is determined by
the second principal part (infinitive)
– ARE = 1st
– *ERE = 2nd (1st pp. will end with “eo”)
– ERE = 3rd
– IO, ERE = 3rd IO
– IRE = 4th
Qualities of a Verb
• Number
– Singular or plural
• Person
– 1st = I, we
– 2nd = you
– 3rd = he,she, it, they
Qualities of a verb
• Voice: active or passive
– Refers to relationship between subject and verb
– Active voice : subject performs the verb
• Aurelia sells the slave. Aurelia vendit servum
– Passive Voice: The subject does not perform the verb
but the verb happens to the subject
• The slave is sold by Aurelia. Servus venditur ab Aurelia
• The person or thing doing the verb goes into the ablative.
– No preposition for things (means), “a, ab” for people (personal
agent)
– Miles vulneratur gladio.
– Miles vulneratur ab amico.
Qualities of a Verb
• Mood
– Indicative = states a fact or asks a question
– Imperative = makes a command
– Subjunctive = special clauses
• Tense
– Shows when the verb happens
– Present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect,
future perfect
Tense Continuum
• Pluperfect: in the past before something else in
the past (August 24)
• Perfect : completed in the past (august 25)
• Present : now (august 26)
• Future perfect: before something else in the
future (august 27)
• Future : in the future (august 28)
• Imperfect: in the past over a span of time ( august
24 and August 25)
Tense Continuum
• Pluperfect : He had taken a shower before he ate
breakfast
• Perfect: He ate breakfast
• Present: He is walking to the car.
• Future Perfect: He will have driven twenty miles
before he returns home.
• Future: He will return home
• Imperfect: He was driving to school behind a very
slow bus.
Verb Bases
• Present Tense : Use infinitive
– Exception : 1st sing passive use 1st pp.
– Are = remove the “re”
• Exception : 1st person singular remove the “are” active
– *ere = remove the “re”
– Ere = remove “ere” , add “I”
• Exception : 3rd person pl add “u” instead of “I”
– Io, -ere = remove “ere” , add “I”
• Exception: 3rd person pl add “iu”
– Ire = remove “re”
• Exception: 3rd person pl. remove “re” , add “u”
Verb bases
• Imperfect : use infinitive
– Are = remove “re”
– *ere = remove “re”
– Ere = remove “re”
– Io, ere = remove “ere” add “ie”
– Ire = remove “re” add “e”
Verb bases
• Future: Use infinitive
– Are = remove “re”
– *ere = remove “re”
– Ere = remove “ere”
– Io, ere = remove “ere”, add “I”
• Exception : 2nd person singular don’t add “i”
• Ire = remove “re”
Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
active
• 3rd principal part minus “I”
– Usually leaves one of the following before the
ending
–U
–V
–S
–X
Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
passive
• 4th principal part minus “us” or “um”
Present active Indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
o=I
s = you
t = he, she, it
mus = we
tis = you pl.
nt = they
1st sing
2nd sing
3rd sing
1st pl
2nd pl
3rd pl
• Translations
– Verb __________, is, am, are ____ing, do, does ____
Present passive indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
R = I am _____ed
Ris = you are ______ed
Tur = he, she, it is _______ed
Mur = we are _______ed
Mini = you pl. are ______ed
Ntur = they are _______ed
• Translations
– Is, am, are ______ed,
– Is, am, are being _______ed
Imperfect active Indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Bam = I
Bas = you
Bat = he, she,, it
Bamus = we
Batis = you pl.
Bant = they
Translations must show action over a period of time in
the past, habitual or continuous
• Was/were, used to, kept on, began to, past tense
Imperfect passive indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Bar = I
Baris = you
Batur = he, she, it
Bamur = we
Bamini = you pl
Bantur = they
Translations:
• Was/were being ______ed, kept on being _______ed, used
to be _______ed, began to be ______ed
Future Active Indicative for –are, *ere
(1st and 2nd conjugations
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
Bo
Bis
Bit
Bimus
Bitis
Bunt
I will
you will
he, she, it will
we will
you pl. will
they will
• Translations: will, shall
• Must show action to occur in the future
Future Passive Indicative for –are, *ere
• Endings
– Bor
– Beris
– Bitur
– Bimur
– Bimini
– Buntur
I will be -----ed
you will be ----ed
he, she, it will be-----ed
we will be-----ed
you pl. will be ----ed
they will be-----ed
• Translations: will be -----ed, shall be ----ed
Future Active Indicative for ere, ire
(3rd, 3rd io, 4th)
• Endings
– am
– es*
– et*
– emus*
– etis*
– ent
I will
you will
he, she, it will
we will
you pl. will
they will
• Translation : will, shall
Future Passive Indicative for –ere, -ire
(3rd, 3rd io, 4th)
• Endings
– ar
– eris
– etur
– emur
– emini
– entur
I will be ----ed
you will be ----ed
he, she, it will be ----ed
we will be -----ed
you pl will be -----ed
they will be -----ed
– Translations: will be _____ed, shall be ____ed
Perfect Active Indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
i
isti`
it
imus
istis
erunt
i
you
he, she, it
we
you pl
they
• Usually preceded by u,v,s,x from the 3rd pp.
• Translations: ----ed, past tense, has/have ---ed,
did –
– Must show action completed in the past
Perfect Passive Indicative
• 4th principal part minus “us”
– Singular
• -us,-a,-um sum
• -us, -a, -um es
• -us,-a, -um est
•
•
•
•
Plural
-i, -ae, -a sumus
i, -ae, -a estis
i, -ae, -a sunt
I was _____ed, have been ___ed
you were ____ed, have been __ed
he, she, it was ___ed, has been
__ed
we were –ed, have been –ed
you were ---ed, have been –ed
they were –ed, have been --ed
• The 4th principal part must be adjusted so that
it agrees with the subject in gender, number,
and case.
– Marcus was wounded
– Marcus vulneratus est.
– Silvia was wounded.
– Silvia vulnerata est.
– The men were wounded.
– Viri vulnerati sunt
Pluperfect Active Indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
eram
eras
erat
eramus
eratis
erant
I
you
he, she, it
we
you pl.
they
• Translation: had ----ed
• Must show action completed in the past before another action
• The endings must be attached to the 3rd pp minus “I”; cannot be by
itself or it’s the imperfect of sum
– Ambulaveram in silva. I had walked in the woods.
– Eram in silva.
I was in the woods.
Pluperfect passive Indicative
• 4th principal part minus “us” or “um”
• Singular
– -us, a, um eram
– -us,-a, -um eras
– -us,-a, -um erat
I
you
he, she, it
• Plural
– -i,-ae, -a eramus we
– -i, -ae, -a eratis you pl.
– -i, -ae, -a erant
they
• Translation: had been -----ed
• Fourth pp. must be adjusted to agree with
subject in gender, number, and case
– Marcus had been seen.
– Marcus visus erat.
– Cornelia had been seen.
– Cornelia visa erat.
Future Perfect Indicative
• Endings
–
–
–
–
–
–
ero
eris
erit
erimus
eritis
erint
I will have
you will have
he,she, it will have
we will have
you pl will have
they will have
• Translations: will have ----ed, shall have ----ed
• Must show action that occurs in the future before
something else in the future
• Frequently used in conditional (if) clauses
Future perfect passive
• Endings 4th principal part minus “us” plus
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Singular
-us,-a, -um ero
-us,-a, -um eris
-us, -a, -um erit
Plural
-i, -ae,-a erimus
-i. –ae, -a eritis
-i, -ae, -a erunt
I
you
he,she, it
we
you pl.
they
• Translations: will have been ---ed, shall have been –ed
• 4th pp. must be adjusted to agree with subject in gender,
number, and case
Pronoun Subjects for Active
•
•
•
•
•
•
O/M/I = I
S/ISTI = you
T=
he,she, it
MUS = we
TIS =
you pl
NT =
they
Tense signs and translations for active
• BA = was,were,usedto, kept on, began to
• BO, BI, BU, A, E = will, shall
• U,S,V,X, followed by I, ERU = past tense, have,
has, did
• ERA = had
• ERO,ERI = will have, shall have
• A,E,I,U = is, am, are, do, does
Pronoun subjects for passive
•
•
•
•
•
•
R = I
RIS = you
TUR = he, she, it
MUR = we
MINI = you pl
NTUR = they
Tense sign and translation for passive
• BA = was/were being ---ed, kept on being --ed, used to be –ed, began to be ---ed
(imperfect)
• BI, BE, BU (are, *ere) or A, E (ere, ire) = will be
---ed (future)
• A, I, E, U = are,is, am ----ed (present)
Passive Person
Part One
• Us = masc sing
• A = fem sing
• Um = neuter sing
• I = masc. Pl.
• Ae = fem pl
• A = neut pl
Passive Tense Sign for Two Part Verbs:
Part Two
• Su
or
e
– Was/were -----ed
– Has/have been -----ed
• Era
– Had been ---ed
• Eri
– Will have been ----ed
•
•
•
•
Part three
m/o = I
S
= you
T
= he,she, it
• Mus = we
• Tis = you pl
• Nt = they
Irregular verbs
• Use the personal endings (o/m,s,t,mus, tis, nt
or r,ris,tur,mur,mini, ntur)
– Base is the irregular part
• Mainly irregular in the present tense:
– Sometimes irregular in future and imperfect
– No irregular verbs in perfect, pluperfect, future
perfect
Irregular Verbs
• Very commonly used verbs
– Sum, esse, fui, futurus
• To be: linking verb
– Possum, posse, potui
• Be able, can
• Always used with an infinitive
– Volo, velle, volui
• To wish
– Fero, ferre, tuli, latum
• To bring, to carry
– Malo, malle, malui
• To prefer
– Nolo, nolle, nolui
• Don’t want
– Eo, ire, ivi, itus
• go
Irregular verbs: Sum, esse, fui, futurus
• Most common verb in Latin
• Linking verb
• Irregular in the present indicative and
subjunctive, imperfect indicative, future
indicative, and in its principal parts
• Regular in perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
both indicative and subjunctive
– Base = fu
Irregular verbs: Sum, esse, fui, futurus
• Present indicative
– sum
– es
– est
Present subjunctive
sumus
estis
sunt
• Imperfect Indicative
– Eram
– Eras
– Erat
eramus
eratis
erant
• Future indicative
– Ero
– Eris
– Erit
erimus
eritis
erunt
sim
sis
sit
simus
sitis
sint
Irregular Verbs: Possum, posse, potui
• Definition: Be able, can
– Always used with a complementary infinitive
• Irregular in the present indicative and
subjunctive, imperfect indicative, and future
indicative; usually like sum just with pot in
front
• Regular in all other tenses
Irregular Verbs : possum
• Present Indicative
– Possum
– Potes
– Potest
Present Subjunctive
possumus
potestis
possunt
• Imperfect Indicative
– Poteram poteramus
– Poteras
poteratis
– Poterat
poterant
• Future Indicative
– Potero
– Poteris
– Poterit
poterimus
poteritis
poterunt
possim
possis
possit
possimus
possitis
possint
Irregular verbs: volo, nolo, malo
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Present tense indicative active
Volo
nolo
malo
Vis
non vis
mavis
Vult
non vult mavult
Volumus
nolumus malumus
Vultis
non vultis mavultis
Volunt
nolunt
malunt
Volo, nolo, malo
• Imperfect bases:
– Vole
– Nole
– male
• Future Tense bases: treat like 3rd
conjugation(ere)
– Vol
– Nol
– Mal
Volo, nolo, malo
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Present active subjunctive
Velim
nolim
Velis
nolis
Velit
nolit
Velimus
nolimus
Velitis
nolitis
Velint
nolint
malim
malis
malit
malimus
malitis
malint
Irregular Verbs: Fero, ferre, tuli, latum
• Present Active Indicative
– Fero
– Fers
– Fert
ferimus
fertis
ferunt
• Imperfect base: fere
• Future base:
fer
– Use 3rd conjugation
• Present subjunctive: treat like 3rd conjugation
Irregular verbs: eo, ire, ivi, itus
• Present Indicative Active
– Eo
– Is
– It
imus
it is
eunt
– Imperfect base: i
– Future base: i
• Use bo, bis, bit, bimus, bitis, bunt
Imperatives
• States a command
– Can be negative or positive
– Always treated like a second person verb
• Can be singular or plural
– Frequently used with vocative nouns
• Formation
– Singular: Remove “re” from infinitive
• Exceptions
–
–
–
–
Dicere = dic
Ducere = duc
Facere = fac
Ferre = fer
Imperative
• Examples
– Vocare = Voca!
– Sedere* = Sede!
– Recumbere = recumbe!
– Venire = veni!
– Stare = sta!
Imperative Plurals
• Remove “re” from the infinitive and add “te”
– Exception
• 3rd conjugation (ere)
• Remove “ere” add “ite”
– Examples
•
•
•
•
•
Dare = date!
Sedere* = sedete!
Ducere = ducite
Facere = facite
Audire = audite
Negative imperatives
• Singular
– Noli with the infinitive
• Noli dicere!
Don’t talk!
• Plural
– Nolite with the infinitive
• Nolite dicere!
Don’t talk!
Deponent Verbs
• Deponent verbs are special verbs that have only
passive forms but active translations.
– Example locutus sum I was talking
• They only have three principal parts and follow the –r, i, - us/um sum pattern.
– Example loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak
• Follow the same rules for bases and endings as for
normal verbs, just don’t ever make an active form.
– For 3rd conjugation you have to remake the present active
infinitive. Take the “i” off the 2nd pp. and add “ere”; then
just follow the normal rules.
Deponent verbs
What are they? How do they
function? What do you need to
know about them?
What is a Deponent Verb?
• Special verbs with passive forms but active
meanings
Secutus est He followed.
Recognize by having only three forms in the vocabulary
listing
----r, ---i,----us sum
conor, conari, conatus sum try deponent
tempto, temptare, temptavi, temptatus try not
deponent
Deponent Imperatives
• For most deponent verbs, take the second
principal part:
– Remove the “I”
– Add “e”
– Will look like an infinitive but translate like a
command
• Conor, conari, conatus sum Conare! Try!
Deponent imperatives for 3rd
conjugation
• For third conjugation deponents:
– Recognize by not having “r” before the “i” on the
second principal part
– Remove the “I”
– Add “ere”
– Example
• Sequor, sequi,secutus sum = sequere Follow!
Active forms for deponents
• Future infinitive
– Secuturum esse to be about to follow
• Present participle
– Sequens, sequentis following
• Future Participle
– Secuturus, -a, -um about to follow
• Gerund
– Sequendum following
• Perfect Participle
– Secutus, -a, -um having followed
First Conjugation Vocabulary list for
deponents
Hortor, hortari, hortatus sum urge, encourage
• Arbitror, -ari, -atus sum
think
• Conor, -ari, -atus sum
try
• Miror, -ari, -atus sum
wonder
• Moror, -ari, -atus sum
delay
• Recordor, -ari, -atus sum
recall
• Vagor,-ari, -atus sum
wander
• Osculor, -ari, -atus sum
kiss
Second conjugation
•
•
•
•
Fateor, fateri, fassus sum
confess
Confiteor, confiteri, confessus sum confess
Polliceor, polliceri, pollicitus sum promise
Vereor, vereri, veritus sum
fear
Third conjugation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak
Nanciscor, nancisci, nactus sum find, obtain
Nascor, nasci, natus sum
be born
Proficiscor, profisci, profectus sum set out
Sequor, sequi, secutus sum
follow
Utor, uti, usus sum
use
Third conjugation
• Collabor, collabi, collapsus sum collapse
• Consequor, consequi, consecutus sum catch
up to, overtake
3rd io conjugation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gradior, gradi, gressus sum walk
Egredior, egredi, egressus sum go out, leave
Morior, mori, mortuus sum
die
Patior, pati, passus sum
endure, suffer
Ingredior, ingredi, ingressus sum go in, enter
Regredior, regredi, regressus sum go back, return
Fourth conjugation
• Experior, experiri, expertus sum test, try
• Orior, oriri, ortus sum
rise
• Potior, potiri, potitus sum
get
possession of
Deponent verbs
• You will usually translate it correctly because it
won’t make sense otherwise.
• Will not be used with ablative of personal
agent (a,ab plus ablative)
– Ingredior villam a via. I am entering the house
from the street.
• I am being entered the house by the street. makes no
sense.
Semi-Deponent Verbs
A small group of verbs which are deponent only the the
perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses
Three principal parts
-o, -e, -us sum
Most commonly used semi-deponents are
audeo, audere*, ausus sum dare
gaudeo, gaudere*, gavisus sum rejoice
soleo, solere*, solitus sum be accustomed
Deponents 2
• They have a perfect active participle which is
really useful. Normal verbs don’t have this.
Infinitives
• Present Active
– 2nd principal part of the verb
– Usually ends with “re”
– Translate as “to + verb”
• Present Passive
– Begin with present active infinitive, remove “e” and add “i“
• E.g. Amare = amari
• 3rd conjugation (ere) remove “ere” add “i”
– E.g. Ducere = duci
– Basic translation: to be _______ed
Possible confusion with “re”
• “ere” can be substituted for “erunt” in the perfect
active tense
– amaverunt = amavere
– If the “ere” is attached to the third principal part of a verb,
it is not an infinitive.
• Remember that many third principal parts end with “u” or “v” or
“s” or “x”; this will help you recognize this alternate form.
Perfect active Infinitives
• Start with the third principal part
• Remove the “i”
• Add “isse”
– amavisse
• Translation : to have ________
• most commonly used in indirect statements
– Scivit se interfecisse suum amicum
– He knew that he had killed his friend
Perfect active Infinitives
• Start with the third principal part
• Remove the “i”
• Add “isse”
– amavisse
• Translation : to have ________
• most commonly used in indirect statements
– Scivit se interfecisse suum amicum
– He knew that he had killed his friend
Perfect Passive Infinitives
• Begin with the 4th principal part
• Remove the “us” or “um” whichever is there.
– You will have to adjust this part to agree with whoever is
receiving the action; most commonly it will be accusative
because of the indirect statement
– UM/OS MASCULINE
– AM/AS FEMININIE
– UM/A NEUTER
• Add “esse” as a separate part
– amatam esse to have been loved
• Most commonly used in indirect statement
– Scivit suum amicum interfectum esse a se.
– He knew that his friend had been killed by him.
Future Active Infinitive
• Begin with the fourth principal part.
• Remove the “us” and add”ur”; you will have to
adjust this part to agree with whoever is doing the
action. It will usually be accusative because of the
indirect statement.
– UM/OS MASCULINE
– AM/AS FEMININE
– UM/A NEUTER
• Add “esse” as a separate part.
– amaturam esse to be about to love
• Translation “to be about to_________”
Uses of the Infinitive
Historical, subjective, objective,
complementary, and the indirect
statement
Historical infinitives
• usually used for a series of actions
• translated as an imperfect tense verb to show a
continuous series
• example
– Femina ambulare de via, viri mirari, omnes viri cadere in
fossam.
– The woman was walking down the street, the men were
amazed, all the men fell into the ditch.
Infinitive Usage
• Complementary Infinitives
– Completes the meaning of an incomplete verb
– Most commonly used with
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Possum
be able, can
Volo, nolo, malo wish, don’t wish, prefer
Cupio
wish
Debeo
ought, owe
Coepi
begin
Necesse est it is necessary
Et al.
Subjective Infinitives
• functions as the subject of the sentence
• grammatically treated as a neuter singular
noun
• in English can be translated as a gerund or an
infinitive
• Example
– Errare est humanum.
– To err is human.
Objective Infinitives
• functions like a direct object
• most commonly used with iubeo, iubere, iussi,
iussus
• treated like a neuter noun
• example
– Iubeo disciplinos studere.
– I order the students to study.
Complementary Infinitives
• complete the meaning of an incomplete verb
• most commonly used with a form of possum,
debeo, paro, coepit, volo, nolo, cupio, incipio,
necesse est, prohibeo and many other verbs that
leave the reader hanging as to what is happening
• example
Plinius poterat videre Montem Vesusium de suam villam.
Pliny was able to see Mount Vesuvius from his home.
Example
Necesse est audire Roberto.
It is necessary for Robert to listen
Potest audire Robertus.
Robert is able to listen.
The Indirect Statement
• used to report a statement
• follows a verb of mental action such as saying, thinking,
understanding, knowing, perceiving, et al.
• subject of the indirect statement will used the accusative
• verb of the indirect statement will be an infinitive
• example
– Scio Caesarem mortuus esse.
– I know that Caesar is dead.
The Infinitive of the Indirect Statement
• The choice of the tense of the infinitive is
relative to the main verb
– same time = present
– before = perfect
– after = future
– The first part of the perfect passive and future
active infinitive will be in the accusative and will
agree with the accusative subject.
Examples
• scio eum stare in via.
– I know he is standing in the road.
• same time
• Scio eum stetisse in via.
– I know that he was standing in the road.
• before
• Scio eum staturum esse in via.
– I know that he will stand in the road.
• after
Indirect Statement issues
• The subject cannot be left understood; the
accusative noun must be there.
• If the subject of the indirect statement is the same as
the main clause, you will use the reflexive pronoun.
– example
• Caesar scivit se debere non ferre Cleopatram Romam.
• Caesar knew that he ought not to bring Cleopatra to Rome
– debere is the indirect statemnent; ferre in complmentary, se is the
subject accusative reflexive.
Infinitives Issue #2
• A LATIN infinitive cannot ever be used to show
purpose. To show purpose, you must use a
subjunctive or a gerund/gerundive.
– Example
• I went to the store to buy shoes.
• Ivi ad tabernam ut emerem soleas.
Subjunctives
Special verbs in special clauses
PURPOSE CLAUSES
• POSITIVE PURPOSE ( POSITIVE MEANS IT
HAPPENS)
– INTRODUCED BY UT
– SHOWS THE PURPOSE OF AN ACTION
• EXAMPLE
–Plinius scripsit ut laudaret suam
uxorem.
–Pliny wrote so that he might praise his
wife.
PURPOSE CLAUSES
• NEGATIVE PURPOSE ( WON’T HAPPEN)
– INTRODUCED BY NE
– SHOWS THE PURPOSE OF NOT DOING AN ACTION
– EXAMPLE
• Cicero comprehendit Catilinae manum ne patriam
vastarent.
• Cicero arrested Catilina’s band of men so that they
would not destroy the country.
ADVERBIAL PURPOSE
• INTRODUCED BY UBI
• SHOWS WHY THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
AS DONE SOMETHING
• EXAMPLE
• Cicero tempus exspectabat ubi Catilinam verbis
oppugnaret.
• Cicero was awaiting a time when he might attack
Catilina with words.
Relative clause of purpose
• Introduced by a form of qui, quae, quod
• Gives the purpose more closely connected with a
noun or pronoun than a verb
• Example
– Cicero accepit epistulam quae explicaret Catilinae
coniurationem.
– Cicero received a letter to explain Catilina’s conspiracy
– Cicero received a letter which explained Catilina’s
conspiracy.
Sequence of tenses
Primary tenses (present, future,
future perfect)
Secondary Tenses (imperfect,
perfect, pluperfect)
If the main verb is a primary
tense, use the following
subjunctives to show proper
relationship to the main verb:
same time/after:
present subjunctive
before: perfect
subjunctive
• If the main verb is a
secondary tense, use the
following subjunctives to
show proper relationship to
the main verb:
– same time/after:
imperfect subjunctive
– Before: pluperfect
Sequence of tenses
• Caesar wrote the Gallic Commentaries so that
people would not forget him.
• Sallust wrote so that he might explain the
Catiline conspiracy.
• Brutus was awaiting a time when he might
betray Caesar with a knife
Result Clauses
• Shows the result of the main verb
– Madge was so angry that she threw a platter at Herb.
• Introduced by ut for something that did, will, or could
happen
• Introduced by ut plus a negative (ne, non, nullus, et al.)
for something that did not, will not, could not happen
• The main clause will usually contain a word that means
“so” such as tam, sic, talis, tantus, tot, adeo;
• These words should act as signals that a result clause is
coming.
– Pompeuis Iuliam tam amavit ut civitatem neglegaret.
Cum Clauses
• Temporal: establishes the time when
something occurs
– Verb will be indicative
– Cum translated as when
• Circumstantial: explain the circumstances
under which something occurs
– Verb will be subjunctive
– Cum translated as since or when
Cum Clauses continued
• Causal: explains the reason something
happens
• Verb will be subjunctive
• cum will translate as since or because
• Concessive: explains something that may
have blocked or hindered the main verb
– Verb will be subjunctive
– Cum will translate as although
Subjunctives in Indirect Speech
• Indirect questions
– Whenever a question is reported in a statement, this
is an indirect statement.
• I know what you are planning. Scio quid facias.
– The main verb wil be a verb or asking or telling such as
rogo, peto, quaero
– The verb of the question portion will be subjunctive.
– The question portion will be introduced by an
interrogative word such as ubi, cur, quare, quo. Quis,
quid, quo modo, quantus, qualis et al.
Subjunctives in Indirect speech
• Indirect command: reports a direct command
– Command portion will be subjunctive
– Main verb will be a verb of commanding or
persuading such as mando, impero, persuadeo,
suadeo, moneo, oro, et al
– The command portion will be introduced by ut for
positive, ne for negative
• Caesar imperavit milites ut hostem oppugnaret.
Subjunctives in Indirect Speech
• Clauses of fearing: with verbs or expressions
of fear, what is feared will use the subjunctive
– Use ne if you fear something will happen
• Calupurnia timet ne Caesar interfectus esset a
Bruto.
Use ut if you fear something will not happen.
Brutus timet ut civitas supersit.
Expression of Fear
Words of fear
timeo, timere, timui
vereor, vereri, veritus sum
metus, metus
pavor, pavoris
terror, terroris
extimesco, extimescere,
extimui
pertimesco, pertimescere,
pertimui
formido, formidinis
formido, formidare
timor, timoris
Subordinate clauses in indirect
discourse
• If you have a subordinate clause such as a relative
clause inside an indirect statement, indirect
question, or indirect command, put the verb of
the indirect statement in the subjunctive
• These sentences usually have three verbs.
– Turducken sentences
• Caesar ordered the soliders to attack the enemy who was
hiding in the ditch.
– Ordered main clause
– Attack indirect command
– Hiding discourse
Relative Clause of Characteristic
• Characterizes or describes a general or
indefinite antecedent
• Common after phrases such as est qui, sunt
qui, nemo est qui, quis est qui
• Use a subjunctive verb for the relative clause
part
• Usually translate as
– Of that sort, the kind that …..
– Quis est cliens quo interficiat suum patronum?
Anticipation
• When an action is anticipated, when dum
means until, and antequam or priusquam
means before, use the subjuntive.
• If these words introduce an actual fact, use
the indicative.
Conditionals
• Introduced by mostly by si, nisi, an
• Simple Conditions will probably happen and use
indicative verbs regardless of the tense.
• If Caesar conquers Gaul, he will be powerful
• Si Caesar vincit Galliam, erit potens.
• Future Conditionals can be one of two types:
more vivid which will probably happen and uses
future perfect and future indicative verbs and less
vivid which is not likely to happen and uses the
present subjunctive.
Conditionals Continued
• More Vivid
– If she sees him, she will run.
• Si viderit eum, curret.
• Less Vivid
– If she should see him, she would run.
• Si videat eum, currat.
• The writer uses the grammar to inform the
reader of the likelihood of the conditional
occurring.
Conditionals continued
• Contrary to Fact
– Cannot happen or will not happen
– Use imperfect subjuncive if English present
– Use pluperfect subjunctive for past
– If I were you, I would not do that.
• Si essem te, ego non facerem id.
– If I had known the facts, I would have acted more
quickly.
• Si cognovissem facta, egissem celerius.
Main Verb Subjunctive: Hortatory
• Expresses a mild command or exhortation
• Uses only the present subjuncitves
• No introductory word for positive; use ne for
negative
• Translate with let or may
– Ludi incipiant. Let the games begin.
• Frequently used for blessing and curses
Main Verb Subjunctive: Deliberative
Questions
• Rhetorical questions implying doubt,
indignation, surprise or impossibility
• Usually introduced by an interrogative
pronoun, adverb, or adjective
• The writer is not expecting an answer.
• Example
– Why would anyone trust Brutus now?
– Cur aliquis credat Bruto nunc?
Main verb Subjunctive: Optative
• Expresses a wish
• If the wish can come true, use the present
subjunctive.
• If the wish cannot come true, use imperfect
subjunctive for present, pluperfect for past
• Frequently introduced by utinam
• Utinam Caesar non credidisset Bruto
• If only Caesar had not trusted Brutus
Nouns
• Definition: a word which shows a person,
place, thing, or idea
• Classification:
– Number:
singular or plural
– Gender :
masculine, feminine, neuter
– Case:
nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, ablative, vocative, locative
• Declension: based on genitive singular
(second form of vocabulary listing)
– ae
–i
– is
– us
– ei
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
• Base: remove the genitive singular ending
• Mater, matris = matr
• Vocabulary Listing
– Nominative singular
– Genitive singular
– Gender
– Definition
– Example
• Ursus, ursi m. bear
First declension
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
a
ae
ae
am
a*
a
plual
ae
arum
is
as
is
ae
2nd masculine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
us/er
i
o
um
o*
e/er/i
plural
i
orum
is
os
is
i
2nd Neuter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
um
i
o
um
o
um
plural
a
orum
is
a
is
a
3rd declension masculine and feminine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
varies
is
i
em
e
repeat nom.
plural
es
um, ium*
ibus
es
ibus
es
I-stem Rules
• For masculine and feminine nouns using
“ium” for genitive plural
– Mono syllable nom. Sing with base ending in two
consonants
• Nox, noctis yes
• Pax, pacis
no
– Nominative singular ends with “is” or “es” and
genitive and nominative have same number of
sylables (parasyllabic)
I-stem rules
– Nominative singular ends with “ns” or “rs”
• Pars, partis
yes
• For Neuter nouns: use “ium” for gen.sing, “ia”
for nom. Pl, acc. Pl, voc pl. and “i” for abl. Sing
– Basically just these nouns
• Animal, animalis (animal)
• Mare, maris(sea)
• Calcar, calcaris(spur)
4th declension masculine and feminine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
us
us
ui
um
u
us
plural
us
uum
ibus
us
ibus
us
5th declension masculine and feminine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
es
ei
ei
em
e
es
plural
es
erum
ebus
es
ebus
es
The Neuter Rule
• All neuter nouns, adjectives, and pronouns
repeat their nominative form for their
accusative and vocative. You must use subject
verb agreement and context clues to
determine the noun’s function in these cases.
2nd dec neuter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sing
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
um
i
o
um
o
um
pl
a
orum
is
a
is
a
3rd declension neuter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sing
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
varies
is
i
repeat nom.
e
repeat nom.
pl
a, ia
um, ium
ibus
a, ia
ibus
a, ia
4th dec neuter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sing
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
u
us
u
u
u
u
pl
ua
uum
ibus
ua
ibus
ua
Irregular Noun: vis, vis f. Force,
violence
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sing
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
vis
vis
viri
vim
vi
vis
pl
vires
virium
viribus
vires
viribus
vires
Nominative Case
• Subject: main noun of the sentence
– With active verb, person or thing doing the verb
• Quintilla servat infantem.
– With passive verbs, person or thing receiving the verb
• Infans servatur a Quintilla.
– Subject verb agreement:
• A singular verb takes a singular subject.
• A plural verb takes a plural subject
• Examples
– Puella vocat
– Puellae vocant
Nominative Case
• Predicate Nominative: renames the subject
after a linking verb ( some form of sum, esse,
fui, futurus)
– Quintilla est ancilla.
Vocative Case
• Used to call someone or something
– Frequently used with imperatives and questions
– Same endings as nominative except second
declension masculine which uses an “e”
– Example:
• Sylvia, fer aquam!
Genitive case “of”
• Possession
– Whoever/whatever owns something = genitive
• Cerberus erat Plutonis canis.
• Description
– With an adjective, the genitive can modify a noun.
– Caesar erat dux magnae virtutis.
• Quantity
– Used with special adjectives that denote quantity such
as satis, nimium, nimis, plus, plenus et al.
– Whatever you have a quantity of uses the genitive
• Titus bibit nimium vini.
Dative Case “to, for”
• With necesse est
– The person or things for whom it is necessary will
use the dative
– Necesse est matri adiuvare suos liberos.
• Indirect Object
– Shows to whom or for whom something is given,
shown or told
– Dedit Marco pecuniam.
Dative
• Special verbs
– A group of verbs that take their direct object in
the dative instead of the accusative
– Some of these are:
• Noceo, credo, pareo, placeo, placet, faveo, studeo,
persuadeo, respondeo, appropinquo, obsto, prosum,
expedio, cedo, licet, fido,opitulor, medeo, parco,
resisto, invideo, irascor, minor, studeo, displicet,
impero, suadeo, dissuadeo, libet
• Credo meae matri.
Dative
• With compound verbs
– Many compound verbs will use the dative for their
direct object instead of the accusative
– Verbs compounded with ad, ante, circum, con, in,
inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, and super are most
commonly used this way
– Example
• Omnibus eius consiliis occurri.
• I withstood all his plans
• Occurri is a compound of ob and curro
Accusative Case
• Direct Object:
– Follows an action verb and answers who or what
after the verb
• This is noun the verb happens to
• Caesar amat suam uxorem et uxores alterorum
quoque.
Accusative Case
• Object of prepositions
– Most Latin prepositions use the accusative case for
their objects (ask what after the preposition)
– In(into), ad (to,…) adversus (against), ante
(before,…)apud (at,…)circiter (about), circum (around),
cis (this side of) contra (against), erga (toward), infra
(below), inter (between), intra (within), iuxta (next to),
ob (on account of), per (through), post (after, behind),
prope (near), praeter (beyond, past…), propter (on
account of), secundum (following…), super (over…)
supra (above), trans (across), ultra (beyond)
– Ambulamus trans pontem.
Ablative
• Time: shows when
– No preposition
– Advenimus nocte.
• Special prepositions: These prepositions use the
ablative for their objects.
– A, abs, ab (from, by), de (from, down, about), e,ex
(from, out of), cum (with), prae (before, in front), pro (
for, in front of), sine (without), in (in), sub (under)
– Sine aqua mortui erunt.
Ablative
• Place where: shows location
– Use “in” or “sub”
– In villa habitamus.
• Place from: shows motion away from
– Use “a,ab,abs,de,e,ex”
– E villa ambulavi.
• Cause : shows reason why without preposition
– Suis victoriis laeti sunt.
Ablative
• Manner: shows style or manner
– Can use “cum” or can omit “cum” with an adjective
– Currit cum celeritate.
– Currit cum magna celeritate/magna celeritate.
• Means: shows means or instrument used to
accomplish an action
– No preposition in Latin but translate with “by: or
“with” into English
– Vulneratus erat gladio.
Ablative
• Personal Agent: person who does the action
of a passive verb
– Use preposition “a,ab”
– A Marco vulneratus est.
• Price: shows how much something costs
– No preposition
– Does not have to be money.
– Vendam tibi porcum octo denariis.
– Vendam tibi porcum duobus amphoris vini.
Time and Space Constructions
• Time
– When = ablative without a preposition
• At the fourth hour, we will sail.
• Quartā horā navigabimus.
– Within which= Ablative with no preposition
• Establishes a time frame but not a duration
• Within this month we will sail.
• Hāc mense navigabimus.
– Duration of time = accusative with no preposition
• Shows how long
• For three months we will sail.
• Tres menses navigabimus.
• Place
– Place from = ablative with a, ab,e, ex, de
• Shows motion away from
• With names of cities, towns, and small islands, the
preposition can be omitted.
– Navigabimus e Carthagine. ( optional preposition)
– Navigabimus Carthagine. ( omitted preposition)
– Navigabimus e Africā
( required preposition)
• Place to = accusative plus prepositions “ad” (
to, toward, near)in (into), sub( up to, at the
foot of)
– Preposition can be omitted with small islands,
cities and towns
– Navigamus ad insulam. ( required preposition)
– Navigamus ad Romam. ( optional preposition)
– Navigamus Romam. (omitted preposition)
– For domus (home) and rus ( country) use domum
(to the house, home) and rus ( to the country)
• Place where
– For normal nouns, use the ablative and the
preposition “in” or “sub”
• Habitavimus in multis villis.
– For cities, towns, small islands use the locative
•
•
•
•
•
•
First declension ae or arum
2nd declension
o or is
3rd declension singular e or sometimes i
3rd declension plural
ibus
Habitavimus Romae.
For domus (home) or rus (country), domo for home, rure
for countryside
• Extent of space: shows how far without a
preposition with the accusative
– Navigabimus viginti milia passum.
– We sailed for 20 miles.
Adjectives
Adjectives
• Definition: describes a noun or pronoun
– What kind?
– Which one?
– How many?
• Agreement: must agree in gender, number,
and case with the modified noun (word being
described)
– Puer territus cucurrit a cane magna.
Gender Rules
• 1st declension = mostly feminine
• 2nd declension
– “Us/er” nominative singular = masculine
– “Um” nominative singular = neuter
• 3rd declension: usually what makes sense but
not always
– “tor” = masc
– “trix” = feminine
• 4th declension
– “us” nominative singular = masculine
– “u” nominative singular = neuter
• 5th declension= mostly feminine
Substantives
• Sometimes the modified noun/pronoun is left out
of the sentence. When there is no word which
agrees in gender, number, and case with the
adjective, you must supply in English the
understood/implied noun based on the gender,
number, and case.
– Masc sing = man; masc pl. = men
– Feminine sing= woman; feminine pl = women
– Neuter sing = thing; neuter pl = things
• Bonus expectabat bona.
• The good (man) was expecting good (things).
First and Second Declension Adjectives
• Nominative patterns: masculine, feminine,
neuter
– “us, a, um”
– “er, a, um”
• Base = feminine nominative singular minus “a”
– Bonus, bona, bonum = bon
– Sacer, sacra, sacrum = sacr
Masculine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
us/er
i
o
um
o
e/i/er
plural
i
orum
is
os
is
i
Feminine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
a
ae
ae
am
a*
a
plural
ae
arum
is
as
is
ae
Neuter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc
Abl
Voc
um
i
o
um
o
um
plural
a
orum
is
a
is
a
Third Declension Adjectives
• Nominative patterns:
– “er, is, e” = masc, fem, neut
– “is, e”
= masc and fem, neut
– “?, is”
= masc,fem, neut nom sing; masc,
fem, neut gen sing.
• Base = remove “is”
– Celer, celeris, celere = celer
– Fortis, forte = fort
– Audax, audacis = audac
Masculine and Feminine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom ????
Gen
is
Dat
i
Acc
em
Abl
i
Voc repeat nom
plural
Es
ium
ibus
es
ibus
es
Neuter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Singular
Nom ??????
Gen
is
Dat
i
Acc repeat nom.
Abl
i
Voc repeat nom.
plural
ia
ium
ibus
ia
ibus
ia
Irregular Adjectives
• A small group of adjectives that show nonspecific quantities are irregular in the genitive
singular and dative singular. The plurals are
normal
• Masculine
feminine
neuter
• us/er
a
um
• ius
ius
ius
• i
i
i
• um
am
um
• o
a
o
Irregular Adjectives
• Listed below are the irregular adjectives:
– Alius, alia, aliud
– Nullus, nulla, nullum
– Ullus, ulla, ullum
– Solus, sola, solum
– Totus, tota, totum
– Unus, una, unum
– Alter, altera, alterum
– Uter, utra, utrum
other
none, not any
any, some
alone, only
total, whole, all
one, only
another
each
Pronouns
• Lovely little words that take the place of nouns
• Pronoun agreement: gender and number
come from antecedent(replaced noun) but
case comes from use in clause
• Types of Pronouns
– Personal pronouns : 1st, 2nd, 3rd. ( I, we, me, us,
you, he, she, it, they)
– Demonstrative Pronouns: points out which one
• This, that, these, those
• Can also be used as personal pronouns
– Relative pronouns: introduce relative clauses and
give more information about the antecedent
• Who, which, whom, whose, what
– Interrogative Pronouns: introduce questions
• Who, what, which, whose, whom
– Reflexive: refer to the subject
• Himself, herself, itself, themselves, myself, yourself
• Possession: special adjectives to show
possession (meus, noster, tuus, vester, suus)
• Intensive pronoun: provides emphasis for a
noun
– -self
• Indefinite pronoun: vague antecedent; points
which one but not specifically
Personal Pronouns
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
FIRST PERSON I, ME
WE, US
NOM
EGO
NOS
GEN
MEI**
NOSTRUM**
DAT
MIHI
NOBIS
ACC
ME
NOS
ABL***
ME
NOBIS
**TO SHOW POSSESSION, USE THE ADJECTIVES
MEUS, MEA,MEUM OR NOSTER, NOSTRA,
NOSTRUM
• ***mecum, nobiscum = with me/ with us
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2ND PERSON
YOU
YOU, Y’ALL
NOM
TU
VOS
GEN
TUI**
VESTRUM**
DAT
TIBI
VOBIS
ACC
TE
VOS
ABL
***
TE
VOBIS
**TO SHOW POSSESSION, USE THE ADJECTIVES
TUUS, TUA, TUUM OR VESTER, VESTRA,
VESTRUM
• ***TECUM , VOBISCUM = WITH YOU
• 3rd person singular
• Masc
– IS
– EIUS
– EI
– EUM
– EO*
fem
neuter
EA
EIUS
EI
EAM
EA*
ID
EIUS
EI
ID
EO
• 3RD PERSON PLURAL
• MASC
– EI
– EORUM
– EIS
– EOS
– EIS
FEM
NEUTER
EAE
EARUM
EIS
EAS
EIS
EA
EORUM
EIS
EA
EIS
Demonstrative Pronouns: this, these
• Points out which one
• Can be used as pronoun or adjective
• Singular
– Mascu
– Hic
– Huius
– Huic
– Hunc
– Hoc*
fem
haec
huius
huic
hanc
hac*
neuter
hoc
huius
huic
hoc
hoc*
• Plural
– Masc
– Hi
– Horum
– His
– Hos
– His
fem
hae
harum
his
has
his
neuter
haec
horum
his
haec
his
Demonstrative Pronoun: that, those
• Also points out which one but further away
than this, these
• Singular
– Masc
– ille
– illius
– illi
– Illum
– illo*
fem
illa
illius
illi
illam
illa*
neut
illud
illius
illi
illud
illo*
• Plural
– Masc
– illi
– illorum
– illis
– illos
– illis
fem
illae
illarum
illis
illas
illis
neut
illa
illorum
illis
illa
illis
Demonstrative Pronouns
• The pronoun “is, ea, id “ found on page _____
can also be used as a demonstrative pronoun.
– It can be used to mean “this, that, those, these”
• All demonstrative pronouns can also be used
as third person (he, she, it, they, him, her,
them) personal pronouns as long as they are
not reflexive to the subject.
– For reflexive pronouns for third person see page
______
Emphatic Demonstrative
• Translates as “the same”
• Singular
– Idem
– Eiusdem
– Eidem
– Eundem
– Eodem
eadem
eiusdem
eidem
eandem
eādem
idem
eiusdem
eidem
idem
eodem
• Plural
– Eidem
– Eorundem
– Eisdem
– Eosdem
– Eisdem
eaedem
earundem
eisdem
easdem
eisdem
eadem
eorundem
eisdem
eadem
eisdem
Relative Pronouns
• Function: introduces a relative clause
– Gives more information about the antecedent
– Relates back to the antecedent
• I know that boy who was running down the street.
• Scio illum puerum qui currebat de via.
• Basic translations: who, which, what, whose,
whom
• Agreement: must agree with the antecedent
in gender and number but gets its case from
the use in the relative clause
– I know the boy who was running down the street.
– Who refers to boy
• Therefore it will be masculine and singular
• It is the subject of its clause
–Therefore it will be nominative
Relative Singular
• Singular
– Masculine
– QUI
– CUIUS
– CUI
– QUEM
– QUO*
feminine
QUAE
CUIUS
CUI
QUAM
QUA*
neuter
QUOD
CUIUS
CUI
QUOD
QUO*
Relative Plural
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plural
Masculine
QUI
QUORUM
QUIBUS
QUOS
QUIBUS
feminine
QUAE
QUARUM
QUIBUS
QUAS
QUIBUS
neuter
QUAE
QUORUM
QUIBUS
QUAE
QUIBUS
Interrogative Pronouns
• Introduce a question
• Follow the rules of agreement
• Singular
– Masc
– Quis
– Cuius
– Cui
– Quem
– Quō
fem
quis
cuius
cui
quam
quā
neuter
quid
cuius
cui
quid
quō
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plural
Masc
Qui
Quorum
Quibus
Quos
Quibus
fem
quae
quarum
quibus
quas
quibus
neuter
quae
quorum
quibus
quae
quibus
• Examples
– Quis es tu?
– Who are you?
– Quid facis?
– What are you doing?
Third Person Reflexive Pronoun
• Forms
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Nominative
None
Genitive
**sui
Dative
sibi
Accusative
se or sese
Ablative
se or sese
Vocative
none
**use the possessive adjective suus, sua, suum
declined in the first and second declension to show
possession.
Usage of Reflexive Pronouns
• Must reflect the subject
• Usually translated by adding “-self”
• Must be essential to the sentence; removing
the pronoun would change the meaning.
– Interfecit se. He killed himself. ( “Himself” is
essential and reflexive)
– Interfecit militem ipse. He killed the soldier
himself. (“Himself” only add emphasis and can be
omitted without changing the meaning of the
sentence)
Personal Possession
• To show possession with 1st person, 2nd
person, and 3rd person reflexive
– Use possessive adjectives which agree in gender,
number, and case with the modified noun.
– I lost my book. Meum librum
– I lost your book tuum librum
– I lost our book
nostrum librum
– I lost your (pl) book. Vestrum librum
• In spite of the fact that I am feminine, I use the
masculine to agree with the book which is masculine.
Non-reflexive possession
• Use the genitive to show non-reflexive
possession( meaning doesn’t belong to the
subject)
– Mychal non amat suum canem. ( The dog belongs
to Mychal)
– Mychal non amat eius canem (the dog belongs to
someone else)
Intensive Pronouns
• Only provide emphasis; can be removed without
changing the meaning
• Translate with –self
• Singular
• Masc
fem
neut
• Ipse
ipsa
ipsum
• Ipsius
ipsius
ipsius
• Ipsi
ipsi
ipsi
• Ipsum
ipsam
ipsum
• Ipso
ipsā
ipso
•
•
•
•
•
•
Plural
Ipsi
Ipsorum
Ipsis
Ipsos
Ipsis
ipsae
ipsarum
ipsis
ipsas
ipsis
ipsa
ipsorum
ipsis
ipsa
ipsis
Indefinite Pronouns
• Definition: some, certain
• Forms
– Quidam
– Cuiusdam
– Cuidam
– Quendam
– Quodam
quaedam
cuiusdam
cuidam
quandam
quādam
quoddam
cuiusdam
cuidam
quoddam
quodam
•
•
•
•
•
Quidam
Quorundam
Quibusdam
Quosdam
Quibusdam
quaedam
quarundam
quibusdam
quasdam
quibusdam
quaedam
quorundam
quibusdam
quaedam
quibusdam
Those Awful “q” words
• 1. It’s perfectly okay to hate them.
• 2. “Qui Quae Quod” are relative pronouns
• Will give more information about a noun or pronoun
• Will be in a sentence with at least two verbs
• Marcus est puer qui amat Ferocem.
• 3. Interrogative Pronouns “Quis, Quid”
• Usually asks a direct questions although sometimes asking
an indirect question ( will have subjunctive verb)
• Quid facit illum strepitum? What is that noise?
• Rogavi quis faceret illum strepitum. I asked who was making
that noise.
• 4. Quod
– If there’s a neuter noun, it might be a pronoun
meaning “which”
• Faciemus iter quod cras incipiet.
• We will make a journey which will begin tomorrow.
– If there is no neuter noun, probably a conjunction
meaning “because”
• Discessimus quod non amavimus illam cenam.
• We left because we didn’t like that food
• 5. Quam
– If only one verb, probably not a pronoun. It needs
something feminine to refer to.
– If used with an adverb, it means “how”
• Quam celeriter currit!
– With a comparative it means “than”
• Sextus est molestior quam Marcus
– With a superlative it means “as possible”
• Sextus currit quam celerrime.
How to translate a Latin
Sentence and remain sane
The Process
• 1. Read the whole sentence in Latin. If it
clicks, consider yourself blessed. If not, start
taking it apart like you would a math problem.
• 2. Always keep your sentence in context of
the passage. Reread the previous sentence
before you start. IT HAS TO MAKE SENSE!
Make predictions in your mind about what
that sentence might say.
• 3. Find the verb/verbs. This tells you how
many clauses you have.
– Three basic types of clauses:
• Subject linking verb predicate nominative
• Subject action verb direct object
• Subject passive verbs ablative
–Figure out which kind of verb
you have.
• Linking verb some form of sum
• Action/active verb
One form
Ends with o/m/s/t/mus/tis/nt
Passive Verb
could be one form or two
part verb
r/ris/tur/mur/mini/ntur
us,a, um /i,ae,a plus some form
of sum
Pattern One: SLVPN
• Linking verb:
– Figure out the subject:
•
•
•
•
•
•
o/m
S
T
Mus
Tis
Nt
I
you
he, she, it or a nominative singular
we
you pl
they or a plural nominative
– Find the predicate nominative which will be in the
nominative case and will rename the subject;
sometimes you will have a predicate adjective to
describe your subject.
Examples
1. Elephanti sunt ingentes.
Sunt is a linking verb;
Ends with nt; therefore the subject must be either THEY or a
NOMINATIVE PLURAL
The elephants are
Is there a word in the nominative that either renames or
describes the subject
The elephants are huge.
Elephanti erant arma Hannibalis.
Elephanti subject
Arma predicate nominative
Hannibalis genitive modifier
Pattern two: action verb
• Figure out your subject:
– o/m I
– S you
– T he,she, it nominative singular
– Mus we
– Tis
you pl
– Nt
they nominative plural
– Then you know who is doing the verb.
– Then look for the accusative to receive the verb.
Examples
• Stultus puer puellam pulsat.
– Pulsat action verb
•
•
•
•
Ends with t: nominative singular subject
Puer pulsat The boy hits
Puellam = accusative
The boy hits the girl.
• Puella stultum puerum pulsat.
–
–
–
–
Pulsat hits
Puella girl nominative singular
Puerum acc
The girl hits the stupid boy.
Pattern 3: Passive Verbs
• Passive verb
– Two part verbs are easier; the endings on the first
part tells you the gender of the subject
•
•
•
•
•
•
R= I
Ris = you
Tur = he, she, it or nominative singular
Mur = we
Mini= you pl
Ntur= they or nominative plural
– Then look for the ablative to show who or what does
the verb
Examples
• Puella pulsata est a puero.
– Pulsata est she was hit
– Puella nominative singular
– The girl was hit
– A puero ablative of personal agent
– The girl was hit by the boy.
•
•
•
•
Mea filia est disciplinus.
My daughter is a student.
Mea filia terram studet.
Me filia est disciplinus quae terram studet.
What do I do with all those other
words?
• Translate using the Socratic method. Ask yourself
questions.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Whose?
Genitive
To whom/for whom dative
What kind? Genitive, adjective, ablative
How?
Ablative
Why?
Ablative, dative
When?
Ablative
Where?
Ablative
How far?
Accusative
– To where? Accusative
– From where? Ablative
– How much?
Ablative, genitive
How to translate a Latin
Sentence and remain sane
The Process
• 1. Read the whole sentence in Latin. If it
clicks, consider yourself blessed. If not, start
taking it apart like you would a math problem.
• 2. Always keep your sentence in context of
the passage. Reread the previous sentence
before you start. IT HAS TO MAKE SENSE!
Make predictions in your mind about what
that sentence might say.
• 3. Find the verb/verbs. This tells you how
many clauses you have.
– Three basic types of clauses:
• Subject linking verb predicate nominative
• Subject action verb direct object
• Subject passive verbs ablative
–Figure out which kind of verb
you have.
• Linking verb some form of sum
• Action/active verb
One form
Ends with o/m/s/t/mus/tis/nt
Passive Verb
could be one form or two
part verb
r/ris/tur/mur/mini/ntur
us,a, um /i,ae,a plus some form
of sum
Pattern One: SLVPN
• Linking verb:
– Figure out the subject:
•
•
•
•
•
•
o/m
S
T
Mus
Tis
Nt
I
you
he, she, it or a nominative singular
we
you pl
they or a plural nominative
– Find the predicate nominative which will be in the
nominative case and will rename the subject;
sometimes you will have a predicate adjective to
describe your subject.
Examples
1. Elephanti sunt ingentes.
Sunt is a linking verb;
Ends with nt; therefore the subject must be either THEY or a
NOMINATIVE PLURAL
The elephants are
Is there a word in the nominative that either renames or
describes the subject
The elephants are huge.
Elephanti erant arma Hannibalis.
Elephanti subject
Arma predicate nominative
Hannibalis genitive modifier
Pattern two: action verb
• Figure out your subject:
– o/m I
– S you
– T he,she, it nominative singular
– Mus we
– Tis
you pl
– Nt
they nominative plural
– Then you know who is doing the verb.
– Then look for the accusative to receive the verb.
Examples
• Stultus puer puellam pulsat.
– Pulsat action verb
•
•
•
•
Ends with t: nominative singular subject
Puer pulsat The boy hits
Puellam = accusative
The boy hits the girl.
• Puella stultum puerum pulsat.
–
–
–
–
Pulsat hits
Puella girl nominative singular
Puerum acc
The girl hits the stupid boy.
Pattern 3: Passive Verbs
• Passive verb
– Two part verbs are easier; the endings on the first
part tells you the gender of the subject
•
•
•
•
•
•
R= I
Ris = you
Tur = he, she, it or nominative singular
Mur = we
Mini= you pl
Ntur= they or nominative plural
– Then look for the ablative to show who or what does
the verb
Examples
• Puella pulsata est a puero.
– Pulsata est she was hit
– Puella nominative singular
– The girl was hit
– A puero ablative of personal agent
– The girl was hit by the boy.
•
•
•
•
Mea filia est disciplinus.
My daughter is a student.
Mea filia terram studet.
Me filia est disciplinus quae terram studet.
What do I do with all those other
words?
• Translate using the Socratic method. Ask yourself
questions.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Whose?
Genitive
To whom/for whom dative
What kind? Genitive, adjective, ablative
How?
Ablative
Why?
Ablative, dative
When?
Ablative
Where?
Ablative
How far?
Accusative
– To where? Accusative
– From where? Ablative
– How much?
Ablative, genitive
DEGREE
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS: positive,
comparative, and superlative
DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES
• An adjective has three degrees.
– Positive is the basic form without any changes for
emphasis.
– Comparative is the next step to show more
emphasis. The word will become larger itself by
adding ior.
– Superlative is the top step. The adjective
becomes even longer by adding usually issim.
Degree of adjectives
Miles est altus. The soldier is tall.
positive
Hic miles est altior. This soldier is taller.
comparative.
Ille miles est altissimus. That soldier is the
tallest.
superlative
POSITIVE
• The positive form is the most basic.
Remember it must always change, based on
its declension, to agree with the modified
noun in gender, number, and case.
– Positive adjectives are either classified as
• First and second declension
• Third declension
– Any adjective can be adjusted to modify any noun.
COMPARATIVE
• The comparative form is the second degree.
• Its can be translated by:
– Adding er to the positive
– Using the word more
– Adding the word rather
– Adding too
altior
altior
altior
altior
taller
more tall
rather tall
too tall
Forming Comparatives
• To make a comparative adjective
– Begin with the base of the adjective
• For first and second declensions, this will be the
feminine nominative singular minus a
• For third declension, it will be the second form from the
vocabulary listing minus is.
– Add ior for masculine and feminine; add ius for
neuter. This will make the two nominative
singular forms.
DECLINING COMPARATIVES
• Once you have added ior, ius, the new
comparative adjective becomes a third
declension adjective regardless of how it
started.
– Altus alta altum
– Altior, altius
positive
1st and 2nd
comparative 3rd
Declining Comparatives
• To decline your new comparative, leave the ior on all
forms except the neuter nominative singular and the
neuter accusative singular for which you will use the
ius form.
• The new ior is the new base. This is your sign that
the adjective is comparative.
• Add third declension noun endings to make the
comparative agree with its noun in gender, number,
and case.
Comparative endings
•
•
•
•
•
•
Masculine and feminine
Nom ior iores
Gen ioris iorum
Dat iori ioribus
Acc iorem iores
Abl iore ioribus
• Neuter
•
•
•
•
•
Nom ius
Gen ioris
Dat iori
Acc ius
Abl iore
iora
iorum
ioribus
iora
ioribus
Examples
(Remember there are alternate
translations)
• Servus altior vinum bibit. (masc. Nom. sing.)
– The taller slave drank the wine..
• Amicus altioris servi quoque vinum bibit.(masc. Gen .
Sing.)
– The friend of the taller slave also drank wine.
• Amicus altiori servo cibum dedit.(masc dat sing)
– The friend gave food to the taller slave.
examples
• Ancilla altiorem servum maluit. (masc. Acc.
Sing.)
– The slavegirl preferred the taller slave.
• Ancilla e popina cum altiore servo
discessit.(masc. Abl. Sing.)
– The slavegirl left the bar with the taller slave.
• (Why don’t the adjective and noun have the
same endings if they agree?)
Superlatives
• The superlative is the highest degree. It will
be a very long word.
• It can be translated by:
– Adding est altissimus tallest
– Adding very altissimus very tall
– Adding most altissimus most tall
Use proper English when translating; goodest is
not a word.
Forming Superlatives
• For most adjectives, form the superlative by
adding issim plus first and second declension
endings. All superlative adjectives are now
first and second declension.
– Altissimus,-a, -um
tallest
– Brevissimus,-a, -um shortest
Declension of superlatives Singular
• Masc
fem
– issimus issima
– issimi issimae
– issimo issimae
– issimum issimam
– issimo issima*
neuter
issimum nom sing
issimi gen sing
issimo
dat sing
issimum acc sing
issimo
abl sing
Declension of Superlatives Plural
• Masc
fem
neut
– issimi
issimae issima
nom pl
– issimorum issimarum issimorum gen. Pl
– issimis issimis issimis
dat pl
– issimos issimas issima
acc pl
– issimis issimis issimis abl pl
Er Superlatives
• Some adjectives for which either the
nominative singular or the base ends with er
will not use the issim; instead you will add rim
(effectively doubling the r which you should
roll when you say it) plus first and second
declension endings
– Pulcherrimus, -a, -um most beautiful
– Celerrimus, -a, -um
fastest
Examples
• Olivia est pulcherrima puella.
– Olivia is the most beautiful girl. Fem. Nom. Sing
• Pueri pulcherrimas puellas spectare amant.
– The boys love to watch the most beautiful girls.
Fem .acc. Pl.
Double L superlatives
• A small group (six) of adjectives whose base ends in il
will use limus (effectively doubling the l which you
should trill) to form their superlatives. These
adjectives are:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Facilis
facillimus, -a, -um easiest
Difficilis difficillimus, -a, -um most difficult
Similis
simillimus, -a, -um most similar
Dissimilis
dissimillimus, -a,-um most different
Gracilis
gracillimus, -a, -um most slender
Humilis
humillimus, -a, -um most humble
The Irregulars
• Changing degree usually follows the patterns
described, making the words progressively
longer and more impressive as the degree
increases. However, just like in English, many
words have irregular degree. We don’t say
bad, badder, baddest; instead we say bad,
worse, worst. Good doesn’t become gooder,
then goodest; instead we use good, better,
best.
Irregulars
• Memorize the following irregulars:
– Bonus
– Malus
– Magnus
– Parvus
– Multus
melior, melius
optimus
peior, peius
pessimus
maior, maius
maximus
minor, minus
minimus
*plus/ plures, plura plurimus
• *neuter substantive
Special grammar structures with
degree
• The superlative is frequently used with a
partitive genitive or genitive of the whole.
– Olivia est pulcherrima puella omnium.
– Olivia is the most beautiful girl of all.
Using quam with comparatives
• When comparing two things with quam:
– The two objects must be in the same case.
– Quam means than
– Flavia est pulchrior quam Cornelia.
• Both are nominitive.
• Quam links the two as than
Ablative of Comparison
• When using an ablative of comparison, the
first item must be either nominative or
accusative.
• The second item is ablative without a
preposition.
– Flavia est pulchrior Cornelia*.
– Flavia is prettier than Cornelia.
Ablative of Degree of Difference
• Used to show how much of a comparison in
reference to the comparative adjective. ( functions
somewhat like an adverb)
– Multo much
– Paulo a little
• No preposition is used.
– Nostri milites sunt multo fortiores illis militibus.
– Our soldiers are much more brave than those soldiers.
ADVERBS
FRIENDLY, EASIER TO GET ALONG
WITH, IMPOSSIBLE TO DECLINE
ADVERBS
• Adverbs modify verbs, ( adverb = to the verb),
adjectives, and other adverbs. They limit these
words.
– When?
– How?
– To what extent?
– He walks quickly. Ambulat celeriter.
Adverbs
• Adverbs agree automatically. They cannot be
declined; just put them in the sentence where
you need them. Many adverbs are
independently made (not made from another
word) such as mox, hodie, cras etc. Others
are made from adjectives in their positive
form.
Degree of adverbs : Positive
• The positive adverb is made one of two ways:
– 1st and 2nd dec adjectives = remove a from
feminine nominative singular and add e
latus lata, latum wide late widely
3rd dec usually add er, ter, or iter
brevis, breve short breviter shortly
Degree of adverbs: Comparative
• The second degree or comparative is formed by
using the neuter comparative adjective (ius). Just
check to be certain it is not modifying a neuter noun.
Translate with more.
– Pugnavit gravius. He fought more seriously.
• Adverb in comparative degree
– Hoc est gravius bellum. This is a more serious war.
• Adjective modifying the neuter noun bellum
Superlative adverbs
• Change the “us” to an “e” on the superlative
adjectives
– Latissimus = latissime
– Widest = most widely
• When used with “quam”, translate “as ______
as possible”
– Quam latissime as quickly as possible
Participles
What they are, what they do, and
how you make and use them
What is a participle?
• Verbal adjective
– A hybrid-type adjective built from a verb
– As an adjective, it describes a noun or pronoun
and must agree in gender, number, and case
• The captured slaves were going to the arena for the
lions.
• Captured tells you which slaves and must agree with
slaves in gender, number, and case. In this sentence it
would be masculine, nominative plural.
• Capti servi ad arenam leonibus ibant.
Participles Definition continued
• As a verb, a participle retains the idea of an
action.
– Capti servi ad arenam leonibus ibant.
– Multi servi ad arenam leonibus ibant.
– Captured is something you can do as opposed to
many. You cannot many.
Verbal qualities of Participles: Tense
• As a verb, a participle has tense.
– Participles come in three tenses: Perfect, Present,
and Future
Perfect tense
• Perfect happens before the main verb
– The lions ate the captured slaves.
– Leones captos servos consumpserunt.
» The slaves had already been captured before the lions ate
them.
Present tense
Present happens at the same time as the main
verb.
The lions were chasing the fleeing slaves.
Leones fugientes servos agitabant.
The lions were chasing the slaves as they
were fleeing
Future Tense
• Future happens after the main verb.
– Intending to escape, the slave pushed his friend toward the
lion.
– Fugiturus servus amicum suum ad leonem propulit.
» The slave pushed his friend to the lion as a distraction so
that he could escape while the lion was munching on his
friend.
Verbal Qualities of Participles: Voice
• As a verb, a participle has voice (active or passive).
• As a verb, the participle ( present and future) can
take an object.
– Intending to eat the slave, the lion attacked.
– Consumpturus servum, leo oppugnavit.
• Servum is the object of consumpturus.
Present active
– Present participles are active. The modified noun
does the participle.
• The screaming slave ran from the lion.
• Clamans servus effugit e leone.
– The slave is being described by clamans and he is the one
doing the clamans.
Perfect Passive participles
– Perfect participles are passive. The modified noun
receives the participle and is frequently
accompanied by an ablative of personal agent or
an ablative of means.
• The slave having been attacked by the lion screamed
loudly.
• Servus oppugnatus a leone vehementer clamavit.
– The slave is being described by oppugnatus but the lion is
actually doing the oppugnatus.
Future active
– Future participles are active. The modified noun
does the participle.
• The lion intending to eat the slave attacked ferociously.
• Leo comsumpturus servum ferociter petivit.
– The lion is being described by consumpturus and in the near
future will be doing consumpturus.
Perfect active participles
• Only exists for deponent verbs
• Will look like a perfect passive but will
translate actively
– Will not be used with ablative of personal agent or
means
– Examples
• Ingressus arenam, leo Christianum consumpsit.
• Having entered the arena, the lion ate the Christian.
Voice practice
• Choose one of the verbs from the first list and
write an English sentence for each participle:
– Present active
– Perfect passive
– Future active
Verbal qualities of participles: objects
• As a verb, the participle ( present and future) can take
an object.
– Intending to eat the slave, the lion attacked.
– Consumpturus servum, leo oppugnavit.
» Servum is the object of consumpturus.
» Consumpturus modifies leo and agree with leo.
Forming participles
Present active
Perfect passive
Perfect active
Future active
Present Active Participles
• Begin with the infinitive
– Remove RE for most verbs
– Add NS, NTIS for the nominative singular and
genitive singular
– Decline as 3rd declension adjective except ablative
singular can be I or E
– Base =genitive singular minus is
• Translation : ----ing, while ----ling
Present active participle sample
• Masculine and feminine
–
–
–
–
–
NS
NTIS
NTI
NTEM
NTI
NTES
NTIUM
NTIBUS
NTES
NTIBUS
• NTE
• Neuter
–
–
–
–
–
NS
NTIS
NTI
NS
NTI
NTIA
NTIUM
NTIBUS
NTIA
NTIBUS
• NTE
• Loving, while loving
• Loving, while loving
PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
• Already made for you
• Fourth principal part of the verb
– Amo, amare, amavi, amatus
• Base = fourth principal part minus us
• Decline using first and second declension endings
• Masculine second declension
• Feminine first declension
• Neuter
second declension neuter
• TRANSLATION: HAVING BEEN ___ED, _____ED,
AFTER BEING _____ED
Perfect passive participle sample
singular
•
•
•
•
•
•
Masculine
Amatus
Amati
Amato
Amatum
Amato
feminine
amata
amatae
amatae
amatam
amata
neuter
amatum
amati
amato
amatum
amato
– Having been loved, loved, after being loved
Perfect passive participle sample plural
•
•
•
•
•
•
Masculine
Amati
Amatorum
Amatis
Amatos
Amatis
feminine
amatae
amatarum
amatis
amatas
amatis
neuter
amata
amatorum
amatis
amatis
amatis
Perfect active participle Formation
•
•
•
•
Already made for you
Only for deponent verbs
Third principal part of the deponent verbs
Base = third principal part minus us
– Sequor, sequi, secutus sum = secut
– Decline like perfect passive, just translate actively
• Having followed secutus
• TRANSLATION: HAVING -----ED, AFTER _____ING
Future active participle formation
• Begin with the perfect passive participle or 4th
principal part ( Use the third principal part for
a deponent)
• Remove us
• Add ur
• Add first declension for feminine, 2nd
masculine for masculine, 2nd neuter for neuter
FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
• TRANSLATION: ABOUT TO _____, INTENDING
TO ______, GOING TO _____
FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE
MASCULINE
•
•
•
•
•
•
SINGULAR
AMATURUS
AMATURI
AMATURO
AMATURUM
AMATURO
•
•
•
•
•
•
PLURAL
AMATURI
AMATURORUM
AMATURIS
AMATUROS
AMATURIS
FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE FEMININE
•
•
•
•
•
•
SINGULAR
AMATURA
AMATURAE
AMATURAE
AMATURAM
AMATURA
•
•
•
•
•
•
PLURAL
AMATURAE
AMATURARUM
AMATURIS
AMATURAS
AMATURIS
FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE NEUTER
•
•
•
•
•
•
SINGULAR
AMATURUM
AMATURI
AMATURO
AMATURUM
AMATURO
•
•
•
•
•
•
PLURAL
AMATURA
AMATURORUM
AMATURIS
AMATURA
AMATURIS
Using participles: tenses
• The tense of the participle is relative to the
main verb:
•
•
•
•
Same time
After
Before
Examples
present
future
perfect
– Milites perdentes urbem vincerunt proelium.
– Milites reliquerunt urbem perditam a militibus.
– Milites oppugnaverunt perdituri urbem.
Using participles
• Participles work like any adjective, just a little bit
fancier. However, under all circumstances, they like
any adjective must agree with the modified noun in
gender, number, and case
• The endings will not always match because of
declensional differences, but the agreement must
always be gender, number, and case
Ablative Absolute
• Two words in the ablative which establish
conditions for the main clause but are not
grammatically connected to any word of the
main clause.
• Can be:
– Noun and participle
– Two nouns
– Noun and adjective
Ablative Absolute
• The ablative absolute is a very commonly used
construction with a participle. It allows you to
combine two thoughts concisely.
– Urbe perdita, milites iter faciebant ad castra.
– Discipulo dormiente, magister erat irata.
Rhetorical Techniques
• Alliteration: repetition of the initial sound of a word
for emphasis
– Porcum parvulum portat.
– He ports a petite pig.
• Anaphora: repetition of a word for rhetorical effect
– Tenet rectum cursum recta gubernaculo
Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions in a list to emphasis
the size of the list
concursabant servi milites viri pueri mulieres
Slaves, soldiers, men, boys, women were running
around.
• Polysyndeton: inclusion of extra conjunctions
to emphasize a list
– Emi vinum et porcum et mala et piros.
– I bought wine and pork and apples and pears.
• Historical present: switch from past tense to
present tense to make the reader feel like the
action is more immediate and compelling