AP European History
Chapter 21
Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism, 1815-1850
 Response
to the defeat of Napoleon
 Desire to contain revolution and
revolutionary forces
 How? Restore much of the old
order
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The Peace Settlement

Four major enemies of Napoleon agree to
remain united: to defeat Napoleon and keep the
peace
Great Britain
 Austria
 Prussia
 Russia

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The Peace Settlement

The Alliance

Restored the Bourbon Dynasty to France



Louis XVIII
Agreed to meet in Vienna in September, 1814
Leader of the Congress of Vienna: Austrian
foreign minister, Prince Klemens von
Metternich
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The Peace Settlement

Klemens von Mitternich
Experienced diplomat
 Conceited and self-assured
 “I am always above and beyond the preoccupation
of most public men; I cover ground much faster
than they can they are” see…how right I am and
how wrong

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The Principle of Legitimacy

Mitternich guided by the principle of legitimacy
at Vienna
For peace and stability
 Restore legitimate monarchs to preserve traditional
institutions

Bourbons of France and Spain
 Italian states-several legitimate rulers returned

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The Principle of Legitimacy

At other locations, however, practicality, not
legitimacy, took precedence
The Congress’s treatment of Poland
 Russia, Prussia, and Austria all laid claim

Prussia and Austria allowed to keep some Polish territory
 Nominally independent Polish kingdom established

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The Principle of Legitimacy


Poland is placed under Russian Romanov
Dynasty
Poland’s guaranteed “independence”


The Kingdom’s foreign policy and kingdom itself
remained under Russian control
Prussia and Austria compensated for previous
losses by receiving Saxony and Italian provinces,
respectively
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A New Balance of Power




Diplomats believed they were forming a new
balance of power
Trying to prevent any power from controlling
others
Prussia and Austria were strengthened
But France still remained a strong power
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A New Balance of Power

Concerns about France fostered barriers created by
Congress of Vienna

To the north, a new enlarged kingdom of the Netherlands




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King William I of the House of Orange
To the south, Piedmont was enlarged
Prussia was strengthened…given territory along East bank of
Rhine
The Germanic Confederation replaced the Napoleonic
Confederation
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The Peace Settlement
A New Balance of Power

Napoleon returns form Elba to France for 100
days
Didn’t disrupt the “Congress”
 Congress punished French people for embracing
Napoleon’s return—pushed borders back to 1790,
forced to pay indemnity, and accept army occupation
for 5 years
 The Congress of Vienna’s orders resulted in no
major conflict for almost a century

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The Ideology of Conservatism

The peace arrangements through the Congress
of Vienna in 1815
Beginning of a conservation reaction
 Contain liberal and Nationalistic forces unleashed by
French Revolution
 Metternich represented the ideology known as
conservatism

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The Ideology of Conservatism

Conservatism dates from 1790, Edmund
Burke

Wrote, Reflections on the Revolution in France
Reaction to French Revolution
 Against radical republican and democratic ideas

Burke maintained that society was a contract
 “The state ought not to be considered as nothing
better than a partnership agreement in a trade of
pepper and coffee…to be dissolved by the fancy
of the parties”

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The Ideology of Conservatism

Burke on conservatism…






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State a partnership “between those who are living, those who
are dead and those who are to be born”
No one generation has the right to destroy the partnership
Each generation has duty to preserve and transmit it to the
next
Advised against overthrow of government
Burke did not reject the possibility of change
Sudden change not good; gradual or revolutionary
improvements good
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The Ideology of Conservatism

The Frenchman Joseph de Maistre had other
form of conservatism
Authoritarian conservatism
 Espoused restoration of monarchy system
 Best for guaranteeing order in society


Most conservatives held a body of basic beliefs
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The Ideology of Conservatism

Fundamental beliefs…
Obedience to political authority
 Organized religion is crucial to society
 Dislike of revolutionary upheavals
 Unwilling to accept either liberal demands for civil
liberties and representative governments or
nationalistic aspirations generated by the French
revolution era

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The Ideology of Conservatism

Conservatism principles…more
Community took precedence over individual rights
 Society must be organized and ordered
 Tradition remained best guide for order
 Conservatism supported by monarchs, government
bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived
churches
 Conservatism dominant after 1815 both domestically
and internationally

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Conservative Domination: The
Concert of Europe

European powers feared revolution and war
leading to Concert of Europe

An accord that grew out of Quadruple Alliance in
November of 1815
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to meet
to prevent return of Bonapartist power
 Four conferences held 1818 to 1822: agreed to withdraw
troops from France and add to Concert of Europe

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Conservative Domination: The
Concert of Europe

Congress met to address three upheavals
Spain: against Ferdinand VII
 Italy: against Ferdinand I
 King of Naples and Sicily


Metternich was particularly disturbed by the
revolts in Italy—saw them as threat to Austrian’s
domination of peninsula
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Conservative Domination: The
Concert of Europe: The Principle of
Intervention

At Troppau, he called for principle of intervention





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The Alliance member states can take military to restore former monarchies to the
throne
Britain refused, saying they didn’t believe in interfering in the internal affairs of
other nations, except in France
Austria, Russia, and Prussia moved forces to restore both monarchs
The victories came with a price as Britain opted out of the Concert of Europe
Britain did keep the Continental powers from interfering with the revolutions in
Latin America
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Conservative Domination: The
Concert of Europe: The Revolt in
Latin America

Napoleon’s wars impacted Latin America

Spanish authority weakened in colonies
Argentina won independence
 Simon Bolivar led independence of Venezuela and
Columbia
 Jose de San Martin freed Chile, Argentina, and Peru
 Mexico and Central Provinces followed


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Portugal recognized Brazil’s independence by 1825
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The Concert in Europe: The Revolt
in Latin America

The Continental powers favored using troops to
restore Spanish control
James Monroe, the President of the U.S., issued the
Monroe Doctrine warning European powers not to
intervene in New World affairs
 Although acting alone, the British navy was the more
threatening deterrent. European powers were no
match for British naval power

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The Concert In Europe: The Revolt
in Latin America

The Latin American countries were now
dominated more by the British
Raw materials and foodstuffs flowed out of Latin
America and industrial goods flowed in
 The outgoing and incoming flows insured the
domination of Latin America by foreigners

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The Concert of Europe: The Greek
Revolt

In 1821, the Greeks revolted against their
Ottoman Turk masters
The Greeks had been dominated for 400 years
 The Muslim Ottomans had permitted Greek
religious orthodoxy
 Revival of Greek nationalistic sentiment beginning
19th century sparked desire for freedom from the
“terrible yoke of Turkish oppression”
 Continental powers come to the aid of the Greeks

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The Concert of Europe: The Greek
Revolt

Continental powers help Greece
France and Britain send ships and defeat Turkish
armada
 Russia declares war on Ottomans and secures two
provinces
 Treaty of Adrianople: Russia, France and Britain
given authority to decide fate of Greece and declare
Greece an independent kingdom
 Greek revolt the only successful revolt until 1830;
thus conservative domination still intact

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Conservative Domination: The
European States: Great Britain: Rule
of the Tories




Between 1815 and 1830, domestic policies
reflected conservative domination
In Great Britain, Parliament was still controlled
by landed gentry and the king could do little.
Tories were the ruling party made of landed
gentry
Whigs were beginning to gain through new
industrial growth
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Conservative Domination: Great
Britain: Rule of the Tories

Popular discontent grew in Britain due to economic
problems

Tory government responded to falling agricultural prices
with the Corn Law of 1815





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Placed high tariffs on foreign grain
This was good for landowners but terrible for working classes
due to high prices of bread
Mass protests ensued. Eleven were killed by troops at the
Peterloo Massacre
Government invoked even tougher restrictions
Tories avoided demands for reforms
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Conservative Domination:
Restoration in France


Bourbon Family restored to France under King
Louis XVIII.
Louis recognized need for change brought by
revolutionaries and Napoleonic era
Accepted Napoleon’s Civil Code
 Property right preserved
 Bicameral legislature established

Chamber of Peers chosen by king
 Chamber of Deputies chosen by 100,000 wealthy people

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Conservative Domination:
Restoration in France

Louis’ moderation opposed by liberals eager to
extend revolutionary reforms and by
ultraroyalists
Ultraroyalists criticized king for keeping so many of
Napoleon’s policies
 “Ultras” hoped to return to monarchy with landed
aristocracy and an influential Catholic Church

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Conservative Domination
Restoration in France

King Louis died and his brother Charles X took
the position of the ultraroyalists
Granted indemnity to aristocrats for losing land
during revolution
 Passed laws encouraging Catholic Church to control
education


Public outrage called for “ministerial
responsibility”—ministers of the king are
responsible to the legislature
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Conservative Domination:
Restoration in France

Charles X violates his commitment to ministerial
responsibility
Deputies protest
 Charles dissolves the legislature
 France is on the brink of another revolution

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Conservative Domination:
Intervention in the Italian States and
Spain

In Italy, the Congress of Vienna had establish
nine states
Much was under Austrian domination
 Governments extremely reactionary
 However, secret societies motivated by nationalistic
dreams conspired
 Chief among the secret societies was the Carbonari
(charcoal burners)

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Conservative Domination:
Intervention in the Italian States and
Spain

In Spain, the Bourbon Dynasty had been restored in
the person of Ferdinand VII in 1814



Initially agreed to allow a parliament known as the Cortes
He reneged and dissolved the Cortes causing a revolt.
The king promised to restore the Cortes
Metternich’s policy came to the king’s rescue


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A French army moved into Spain, forcing the revolutionary
government to flee
The king was restored to the throne
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Conservative Domination:
Repression in Central Europe

After 1815, reactionary forces were
particularly successful

Metternich played important role
“I keep an eye on everything. My contacts are such
that nothing escapes me.”
 Liberalism and nationalism both emerged in German
states and Austrian empire; but, they were initially
weak throughout Central Europe
 Central Europe tended to remain dominated by
landed aristocracy and autocratic, centralized
monarchies

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Conservative Domination:
Repression in Central Europe

The Congress of Vienna recognized 38 separate
states of once Holy Roman Empire
Austria and Prussia were largest
 All states were in the Germanic Confederation

Had little power
 Had no executive
 Used by Metternich to repress revolutionary movements
within German states

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Conservative Domination:
Repression in Central Europe




Initially, Germans favored liberal reforms and some
were started in Prussia—seen as a leader for change
Some reforms were made under King Frederick
William III, but they didn’t include a legislative
assembly or representative government
Frederick William grew more reactionary and fell in
behind Metternich’s lead
Prussia remained largely absolutist state with little
interest in German unity
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Conservative Domination:
Repression in Central europe

Professors and students create liberal and
national movements in German states
Students organized Burschenschaften—student
societies for free/united Germany
 Their motto, “Honor, Liberty, Fatherland”

Views in part inspired by Friederich Ludwig Jahn
 Jahn organized societies encouraging followers to
disrupt lectures of college professors if they did not
conform to nationalistic concepts

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Conservative Domination:
Repression in Central Europe

Burschenschaften pursues activities alarming
German governments
At Wartburg Castle, assembly honoring Luther,
crowd burned conservative books
 Deranged student assassinated reactionary
playwright
 Metternich had Germanic Confederation draw up
the Karlsbad Decrees

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Conservative Domination
Repression in Central Europe

Karlsbad Decrees
Closed the Burschenschaften
 Provided for press censorship
 Universities under supervision and control


Metternich, along with German rulers, had again
maintained the conservative status quo
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Conservative Domination:
Repression in Central Europe


Austrian Empire was multinational state
Held together by
The Dynasty
 The Imperial Civil Service
 The Imperial Army
 The Catholic Church


National groups continued to attempt its
breakup
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Repression in Central Europe

Metternich continued to hold things together

To him, the big concerns remained liberalism and
nationalism
These concepts could tear an empire apart
 A national group believing it had the right to its own
government would be disastrous to an empire

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Russia: Autocracy of the Tsars


Beginning of 19th century, Russia was initially
agrarian, rural, and autocratic
The Tsar, Alexander I, still regarded as divine
monarch
But raised on enlightenment ideas
 Made some reforms
 Refused to grant a constitution or free serfs
 Defeat of Napoleon caused him to become a
reactionary—return to central monarchy

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Russia: Autocracy of the Tsars

Soon, groups apposed Alexander
The Northern Union was aware of outside changes
 Alexander’s sudden death offered opportunity
 Northern Union revolted against the accession of
Nicholas (son) to the throne but were defeated by
loyalist troops
 The revolt changed Nicholas from conservative to
reactionary, strengthening secret police and
increasing bureaucracy

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Russia: Autocracy of the Tsars

Nicholas affirmed there would be no revolutions
in Europe under his watch
Called the Policeman of Europe
 Willingly sent troops anywhere to crush rebellions

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The Ideologies of Change


Conservative forces were in ascendancy 1815 to
1830
Also, new movements of political philosophies
and came into their own the first half of 19th
century
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Liberalism

Liberalism grew out of
The Enlightenment
 American Revolution
 French Revolution
 Industrial Revolution

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Liberalism


It added even more vigor from the Industrial
Revolution which fostered the absolute belief in
the freedom from restraint
Industrial middle class largely adopted the policy
as its own
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Economic liberalism


Also called classical economics
Primary tenet: laissez-faire, the state should not
interrupt free play of natural economic forces,
especially supply and demand
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Economic Liberalism

Government has three functions only
Defense of the country
 Police protection of the individual
 Construction and maintenance of public works too
expensive for individuals to undertake


Maximum economic freedom brings about the
greatest good to the greatest number of people
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Economic Liberalism

The case against government interference
enhanced by Thomas Malthus

Wrote, “Essay on the Principles of Population”
Unchecked population increases at fast rate while food
supply increases at slow rate causing untold
harm/starvation
 Nature imposes restraints to slow population, e.g. poverty,
exposure to seasons, unwholesome occupations,
epidemics, plagues, etc. No government should interfere
with this natural process

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Economic Liberalism

David Ricardo further developed Malthus ideas
Wrote, “Principles of Political Economy”
 Population increases

More workers
 Wages fall
 Misery and starvation
 Population is reduced
 Wages climb, workers have more kids, the cycle repeats

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Political Liberalism

Political liberals held common beliefs
Protection of basic rights
 Equality before the law for all people
 Freedom of assembly, speech, and press
 Freedom from arbitrary arrest
 Freedom to be guaranteed by document
 Religious toleration, but separation of church and
state (no state religion)

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Political Liberalism

Political liberalism…
Right of peaceful opposition to government
 Representative government
 Many believed in constitutional monarchy or
constitutional state with limited government powers
 Kings ministers responsible to legislature rather than
king—legislative check on the executive

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Political Liberalism

Political Liberalism…
Right to vote
 Right to hold office for men
 Voting and office holding tied to property
qualifications
 Voting and office holding also tied to middle class
industrial men

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Political Liberalism

John Stuart Mill
Advocate of political liberalism
 Wrote, “On Liberty”, classic statement on liberty of
the individual
 “Absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all
subjects” needed to be protected
 Need to be protected from government censorship
and tyranny of the majority

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Political Liberalism

Mill became enthusiastic supporter of women’s
rights
Wrote, “On the Subjection of Women” with his
wife, Harriet Taylor
 Differences between men and women not due to
natures but due to different social practices
 Women need equal education

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Nationalism

Nationalism is being a part of a community that
has common institutions, traditions, language,
and customs
Constitutes a nation
 The nation, rather than dynasty, city-state, or
political unit, becomes focus of individuals’ primary
political loyalty

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Nationalism


Didn’t become popular until French Revolution
Each nationality should have own government


Divided people such as Germans wanted their own
nation
Threatened to upset the political order
United Germany or Italy would upset the peace set
in 1815
 Independent Hungarian state would end Austrian
Empire

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Nationalism


Because many European states were
multinational, they tried to repress nationalism
First half of 19th century, nationalism and
liberalism became allies
Liberty could be realized only by people ruling
themselves
 Nations could be linked together in broad
community

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Early Socialism

Early socialism was introduced by theorists and
intellectuals
Wanted to introduce equality into social conditions
 Believed human cooperation was superior to
competition
 Pitiful slums, mines, factories gave rise to the
thought process


Later, Marxists would label such theorists as
utopian socialists
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Early Socialists

Utopian socialists were against private property
and competitive spirit
Elimination of these things would produce better
environment
 They proposed a variety of ways to accomplish this
task

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Fourier

Charles Fourier proposed creation of small
model communities
Voluntary associations to demonstrate advantages of
cooperative living
 Called Phalansteries
 Live and work together for mutual benefit

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Owen

Robert Owen, manufacturer, also believed in
communal living
Believed humans would demonstrate true natural
goodness in communal environment
 Community failed due to bickering
 Frances Wright, disciple of Owens, also started a
“model” community

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Blanc

Frenchman Louis Blanc

Wrote, “The Organization of Work”
Social problems can be solved by government assistance
 Denounced competition as main cause of problems
 Called for workshops to manufacturer goods for public
sale
 State financed workshops—owned by individuals

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Female Supporters

Women attracted to the idea of restructuring
society for more equality between the sexes
Zoe Gatti de Gamond established phalanstery—
providing men and women with same education
and job opportunities
 Called for men and women to share child care and
house cleaning chores
 Combination of Christian values, scientific thought,
and social utopianism

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Tristan




Flora Tristan attempted to foster “utopian
synthesis of socialism and feminism”
Preached the liberation of women
Her “Worker’s Union” advocated Fourier’s
ideas to reconstruct both family and work
The only way to free society and change
civilization
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Tristan


She and others established basis for attacking
capitalism
First half of 19th century, socialism remained a
fringe movement

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Overshadowed by liberalism and nationalism
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Revolution and Reform
1830-1850
Forces of change begin in 1830.
Conservatism of Europe begins to
break. Liberals and Nationalists begin
to see possibility of breakthrough
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Another French Revolution


Elections of 1830 produced more success for
liberals
Charles X decided to seize the initiative before
elections

Issues edicts known as the July Ordinances
Imposed rigid censorship on press
 Dissolved legislative assembly
 Reduced electorate preparation

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Another French Revolution

Charles actions produced the July Revolution
Provisional government established
 Led by moderate, propertied liberals
 Appealed to Louis-Philippe, the Duke of Orleans,
cousin of Charles X, to become constitutional king
of France
 Charles fled to Great Britain

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Another French Revolution

Louis-Philippe called the bourgeois monarch
Support came from upper middle class
 Dressed like them


Industrial Revolution at this time fostered
sporadic economic crises, unemployment, and
poor working conditions

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Worker unrest and outbursts of violence
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Another French Revolution

Louis-Philippe and Francois Guizot of the Party
of Resistance joined in agreement that the
perfect government had been reached

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Suppressed the concept of ministerial responsibility
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Revolutionary Outbursts in
Belgium, Poland, and Italy

Nationalism was the force behind three
outbursts in 1830
When Congress of Vienna tried to add Austrian
Netherlands (Belgium) to the Dutch, the Belgiums
rose up to fight the transfer and were supported
 A constitutional monarchy was established for the
new independent state

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Revolutionary Outbursts in
Belgium, Poland, and Italy

Both Poland and Italy tried to do what Belgium
had done, but were defeated
Metternich sent Austrian troops to crush revolts in
three Italian states
 In Poland, the Russians crushed attempts at freedom

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Reform in Great Britain



New election brought Whigs to power
July Revolution in France fresh in British minds
Industrial Revolution produced new, and
expanding group of industrial leaders
Resented corrupt political system and lack of power
 Whigs realized concessions were better than the
revolution and granted them
 The Reform Act of 1832 was passed

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The Reform Act of 1832


Gave recognition to the Industrial Revolution
Reapportionment of towns, buroughs, and cities
resulted in urban communities having more
voice in government
The property qualification to vote still retained
 Number of voters roughly doubled
 Not a huge change in Parliament
 Benefit mostly to upper middle class

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The Reform Act of 1832


The lower middle class, artisans, and industrial
workers still had no vote
Significantly, however, the industrial middle
class had been joined to the landed interests in
ruling Britain
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New Reform Legislation


Much reform in 1830s and 1840s
Many reforms focused on abuses of Industrial
Revolution
Aristocratic landowners usually pushed for reform in
industry
 Industrialists and manufacturers favored economic
liberalism—they pushed back

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New Reform Legislation

The Poor Law of 1834
Giving aid to poor and unemployed would
encourage laziness and increase paupers
 Poor crowded into workhouses where living
conditions were intentionally miserable so people
could be encouraged to find employment

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New Reform Legislation

Repeal of the Corn Laws (high tariffs on foreign
grain)…more liberal legislation

Effort by industrialists Cobden and Bright
Formed Anti-corn League in 1838
 To help workers by lowering bread prices


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Real repeal came when Robert Peel, Torie Leader,
convinced associates to support free trade and
abandon Corn Laws
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New Reform Legislation


The Reform Act of 1832 and the repeal of the
Corn Laws satisfied Britain at this time
On the continent, however, revolutionary forces
driven by liberalism and nationalism were
looming
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The Revolutions of 1848


Liberalism and nationalism begin to make
inroads to conservatism in Europe through the
revolutions of 1848
Again, a revolution in France was a spark for
more revolutions
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Yet Another French Revolution





Severe depression in France sparked
revolutionary thoughts and actions
Scandals, graft, and corruption angered citizens
Louis-Philippe government refused changes
Law forbade political rallies but political
banquets were held instead
Philippe abdicated and went to Britain
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Yet Another French Revolution

A provisional government was established
Moderate and radical republicans
 Included socialist Louis Blanc
 The assembly was to be elected by universal
manhood suffrage

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Yet Another French Revolution

Blanc established national workshops as
cooperative factories run by workers
Jobs were mostly leaf raking and ditch digging
 Became burdensome on government
 The number in the workshops grew from 10,000 to
120,000, empting the treasury and scaring the
moderates

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Yet Another French Revolution

Moderates responded to the workshop
“overload” by closing them

Workers wouldn’t accept this decision and began
working-class revolt
Revolt was crushed
 Four days of fighting
 Thousands killed
 Four thousand prisoners deported to Algeria in North
Africa

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Yet Another French Revolution

New constitution established a republic
Unicameral legislature
 Elected by universal male suffrage
 The new president was Charles Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte


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Destined to become emperor Napoleon
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Revolution in the Germanic States

The Paris revolution caused many German
rulers to propose changes

In Prussia, concessions were made to appease
revolutionaries
King Frederick William IV agreed to abolish censorship,
establish a new constitution, and work for a united
Germany
 The “united Germany” promise led to an all-German
parliament to meet in Frankfurt

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Revolution in the Germanic States

The Frankfurt Assembly was dominated by welleducated, highly articulate men
Nationalism was on their minds and they were ahead
of the times when compared to their governments
 There ensued a debate about establishing a “Big
Germany” or “Small Germany”
 The assembly disbanded, unable to agree on a
German state

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Upheaval in the Austrian Empire

Paris revolution encouraged upheavals in Austria
The Hungarian liberals were willing to keep the
Hapsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature
 Demonstrations in Buda, Prague, and Vienna led to
Metternich’s dismissal who fled abroad
 Hungary received its own legislature, separate
national army, and control of its foreign policy and
budget

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Upheaval in the Austrian Empire


For Hungary, allegiance to Habsburg dynasty
was its only tie to the Austrian Empire
In Bohemia, the Czechs began to demand their
own government as well
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Upheaval in the Austrian Empire

Emperor Ferdinand I had made concessions but
waited for chance to take back control
Conservative were please with division, as in the
German states, between moderates and radicals
 Conservative were heartened when a Czech revolt
was put down in Prague
 Viennese rebels were later crushed as well

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Upheaval in the Austrian Empire

Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of Francis Joseph
I, his nephew
Worked to restore the imperial government in
Hungary
 Only with the aid of the Russians and 140,000 men
was Joseph able to defeat the Hungarian revolution


Revolutions in Austria also failed—numerous
nationalities were still subject to Austrian rule
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Revolts in the Italian States


Italy failures in 1830-1831 encouraged
unification in a new direction
The leadership of Italy’s risorgimento
(resurgence) was passed to Giuseppe Mazzini, a
dedicated Italian nationalist

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Founded organization known as Young Italy
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Revolts in the Italian States


Young Italy’s goal was unified Italy
Mazzini wrote, “The Duties of Man”
Urged Italians to dedicate their lives to united Italy
 Women also took up Mazzini’s call


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Cristina Belgioioso started newspaper espousing the
Italian cause
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Revolts in the Italian States

Mazzini’s and Belgioioso’s vision was almost
fulfilled except
Italian states rose in revolt
 Ruler after ruler granted constitution to its people
 Conterrevolutionary forces also prevalied
throughout Italy
 French helped Pope Pius IX regain control of Rome
 Only Piedmont kept a liberal constitution

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The Failures of 1848


Throughout Europe in 1848, popular revolts led
to liberal constitutions and liberal governments
But early successes led to disasters later, why?

#1: Divisions soon shattered the ranks of the
revolutionaries
Liberals and propertied classes failed to extend suffrage to
the working class
 Liberals rallied to the ruling class fearing social revolution
of the working classes—loss of property and security

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The Failures of 1848

#2: Second reason for failures was disagreement
and infighting among nationalities

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Hungarian demanded autonomy from Austrians, but
refused it for the Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs
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The Maturing of the United States

The U.S. Constitution committed the United
States to liberalism and nationalism
Initially, there were divisions over the federal
government and states rights
 Bitter conflict between Federalists and the
Republicans

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The Maturing of the United States

Alexander Hamilton led the Federalists
Favored financial program that would establish a
strong central government
 Pro British


Thomas Jefferson and James Madison led the
Republicans
Feared centralization and its consequences for
popular liberties
 Pro French

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The Maturing of the United States

National unity also came form the Supreme
Court led by John Marshall
Made it into important national institution
 Curbed the actions of states courts and legislatures


Andrew Jackson opened the era of mass
democracy
Property qualifications dropped
 Most males had suffrage

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The Maturing of the United States

The traditional belief in
the improvement of
human beings was also
given expression
Andrew Jackson
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The Emergence of an
Ordered Society
Revolutionary upheavals made rulers nervous in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries. Crowding of more
people into urban areas cause problems and
concerns. Many feared urban poor posed threat to
possessions and security. New police forces
appeared to keep order.
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The Police Forces

In 19th century, Europe developed systematic
police force
Well-trained law enforcement officers
 Maintain domestic order
 That the “force’ was there to protect people made
them acceptable

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French Police

In March 1829, the new police, known as the
serjents, became visible in Paris streets
Blue uniform
 Lightly armed with white cane (day) and saber
(night)

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British Bobbies


British, fearful of secret police, resisted police
for a while
Depended on unpaid constables for a while
Didn’t worked
 Professional force needed


Sir Robert Peel introduced “bobbies”, named
after him
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Spread of Police Systems

German police force called the Schutzmannschaft,
modeled after London police
More military in design
 “a German policeman on patrol is armed as if for
war”

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Other Approaches to the Crime
Problem


Some people believed crime was directly related
to unemployment
Europeans created poor laws and workhouses
for unemployed people who they thought were
lazy. Workhouses were not places people
wanted to be—designed purposely that way
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Other Approaches to the Crime
Problem

Many thought the crime problem was due to
moral degeneracy of the lower classes
Labeled “dangerous classes”
 Perceived threat to the middle class


Group of secular reformers began to instruct
lower classes in applied sciences to make them
productive members of society
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Other Approaches to the Crime
Problem


The London Mechanics Institute was one
example of an organization that helped
“dangerous classes”
Organized religion took yet another approach
Evangelicals set up Sunday schools to improve
morals
 Protestants established nurseries for orphans and
homeless children

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Other Approaches to the Crime
Problem

The Catholic Church attempted good works
through religious orders; dedicated priest and
nuns used spiritual instruction and recreation to
turn young male workers away from moral vices.
Female workers instructed away from lives of
prostitution
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Prison Reform

Increase in crime led to more arrests
Too much use of capital punishment seen as
ineffective
 Capital punishment replaced by imprisonment
 British sent serious offenders to colonial Australia



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Practiced slowed with complaints from colonists
Reformers began to look for alternatives to
humiliating work
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Prison Reform

British and French sent missions to the United
States to examine the U.S. prison system

At Walnut Street Prison, prisoners were separated
into individual cells


3/11/2016
Both French and British constructed prisons to the
Walnut Street model
Prisoners wore leather masks and sat in separate
stalls in chapel
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Prison Reform



Solitary confinement was seen as a means for
prisoners to reflect on own conscience and
become more accepting of chaplain counseling
Prison reform and police forces were geared
toward the creation of a more disciplined society
Discontent had been fostered by the societal
changes brought about through industrialization
and urbanization
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Culture in the Age of
Reaction and Revolution:
The Mood of Romanticism
At the end of the 18th century, Romanticism
challenges the Enlightenment’s
preoccupation with discovering truth.
Romantics tried to balance reason with
intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination
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The Characteristics of Romanticism


Romantic writers emphasized emotion,
sentiment, and inner feelings
The Sorrows of the Young Werther by Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe, romantic model
Werther sought freedom to fulfill himself
 Misunderstood and rejected by society, he still
believed in his own worth through inner feelings
 Rejected by a girl he loved, he committed suicide

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The Characteristics of Romanticism

Important characteristic of Romanticism was
individualism
Interest in unique traits of each individual
 Following inner drives led romantics to rebel against
middle-class conventions


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Long hair, beards, outrageous clothes reinforced
individualism (“shades” of the 60s)
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The Characteristics of Romanticism

Sentiment and individualism came together as a
stress for the heroic
Solitary genius ready to defy the world
 Thomas Carlyle wrote of heroes who did not destroy
themselves but transformed society for the better

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The Characteristics of Romanticism

Many Romantics had passionate interest in the
past
In Germany, the Grimm brothers collected and
published fairy tales
 Hans Christian Anderson in Denmark (ditto)
 Literature reflected historic consciousness


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Novels of Walter Scott—Ivanhoe—clash between Saxon
and Norman knights
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The Characteristics of Romanticism

Gothic literature can be added to the bizarre and
unusual, including chilling short stories
Edgar Allan Poe
 Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
 Romantics sought unusual experiences in their lives


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Pursuing states of experience in dreams, nightmares,
frenzies, etc., and experimenting with cocaine, opium, and
hashish to produce altered states of consciousness
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Romantic Poets



Romantics ranked poetry highest literary form—
saw it as expression of the soul
Romantic poets viewed as seers who revealed
invisible world to others
Many living intense, but short lives

Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote Prometheus Unbound –a
revolt of against laws and customs

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Died by drowning in Mediterranean Sea
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Romantic Poets

Lord Byron

Dramatized himself as the melancholy Romantic
hero described in his work, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage

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Participated in the movement for Greek independence
and died fighting the Ottomans
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Love of Nature

Romantic poets gave full expression to love of
nature

William Wordsworth
Nature contained a mysterious face the poet could
perceive and learn from
 Nature was alive and sacred
 Nature was a mirror in which humans could learn about
themselves

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Love of Nature

Other Romantics carried this worship of nature
further into pantheism by identifying the great
force in nature with God
Romantics would not recognize the deist God of the
Enlightenment
 German Romantic poet, Friedrich Novalis, wrote,
“Anyone seeking God will find Him anywhere.”

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Critique of Science



The Romantics believed science reduced nature
to a cold object of study
To Wordsworth, the poet who left the world
“one single moral precept, one single affecting
sentiment,” did more for the world than
scientists who were soon forgotten
The Frankenstein monster symbolized the
danger of science trying to conquer nature
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Romanticism in Art


Visual art were deeply affected by Romanticism
Romantic artists shared two characteristics
Artistic expression (e.g. painting) was a reflection of
the artist’s inner feelings--his own imagination
 The principles of Classicism were rejected

Beauty not timeless—depended on one’s culture and age
 Abandoned classical restraint for warmth, emotion, and
movement

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Friedrich

German painter Casper David Friedrich had life
experiences that guided him to preoccupation
with God and nature
Mountains shrouded in mist, gnarled trees bathed in
moonlight, etc., conveyed mystery and mysticism
 Nature was a manifestation of divine life
 Look to your inner vision—”Shut your physical eye
and look first at your picture with your spiritual
eye…”

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Turner

Englishman Joseph Malford William Turner
Twenty thousand paintings, drawings, watercolors
 Concern with nature—innumerable landscapes,
seascapes, sunrises, and sunsets
 Did not produce nature accurately—conveyed
natures mood using skilled interplay of light and
color to suggest natural effects
 Objects melt into surroundings

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Delacroix

Eugene Delacroix was the most famous French
romantic artist
Largely self-taught
 Fascinated with the exotic and had passion for color
 The Death of Sardanapalus—portrayal of last Assyrian
king

Theatrically and movement with daring use of color
 “a painting should be a feast to the eye”

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Romanticism in Music

To many Romantics, music was the most
Romantic of the arts because it enabled the
composer to probe deeply into human emotions




…’the awakening of emotion”
Eighteenth century: Classicism
Nineteenth century: Romanticism
Ludwig van Beethoven served as bridge between
both Classicism and Romanticism
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Beethoven

One of few composers to singlehandedly
transform the art of music (1770-1827)
Ablaze by events in France
 Yearned to communicate his cherished beliefs

“I must write, for what weighs on my heart, I must
express”
 Music had to express his deepest inner feelings

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Beethoven




Born in Bonn, came from family of musicians
Reflected the influence of Haydn and Mozart
Wrote from largely Classical framework
Wrote Eroica—originally intended for Napoleon
Broke through to elements of Romanticism
 “opens flood gates of fear, of terror….”

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Beethoven

Chorale finale of Ninth Symphony, most
moving of pieces, composed when he was
totally deaf
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Berlioz

Frenchman Hector Berlioz composed in
Romantic style

One of founders of program music—usiing the
moods and sound effects of music to depict the
actions and emotions in a story

3/11/2016
Symphonie Fantastique – complete program symphony—
invoking passionate emotions of tortured love affair
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The Revival of Religion in the Age of
Romanticism

After 1815, Christianity experienced a revival
Catholicism had lost its attraction with educated
elites as they flirted with the Enlightenment in 18th
century
 Restoration of nobility brought new appreciation for
Catholic faith as force for order

Force was greatly reinforced by Romantic movement
 Attraction of Romantics to Middle Ages, emotion, etc.

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Catholicism

Romantic period benefitted Catholicism
Many conversions to Catholic faith
 Frenchman Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand wrote,
Genius of Christianity

Defense of Catholicism based on Romantic sentiment
 “You could not enter a Gothic church without feeling a
kind of awe and vague sentiment of the Divinity”

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Protestantism

Protestantism experienced revival

The “awakening”
Evangelical preachers and messages
 Sin and redemption central to message
 Hellfire and emotional conversion

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Conclusion

In 1815, a conservative message spread
throughout Europe


Embodied in the Concert of Europe
Ideologies of nationalism and liberalism
unleashed by the French Revolution and as
spread through the Industrial Revolution were
alive and active
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Conclusion

There were many failed revolutions


There were some successes


Poland, Russia, Italy, and Germany
Reforms in Britain, and successful revolutions in
Greece, France, and Belgium
In 1848, revolutions again failed, but the
idealistic liberals and nationalists knew their time
was at hand
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