Human Motivation
Chapter 5
Arousal, Attention, and Peak Performance
Peak Performance
Peak performance:
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Doing the very best that we are capable of
Ability to fully focus on the task in front of us
Persisting in the face of distractions/adversity
One of the main things preventing us from
achieving peak performance in our inability to
control our attention.
Direction and organization seems to be governed by
a large degree by arousal. (When arousal shifts,
attention tends to shift.)
Definition of Arousal
Arousal: the activation of the brain and body; state of
readiness so that we are prepared to engage in adaptive
behaviors.
Two primary arousal systems:
Cortical arousal system- arouses brain systems.
Autonomic nervous system- arouses the body.
These two systems often function independently.
To conserve energy and reduce wear and tear on the
body, these systems are activated only when needed.
Cortical Arousal
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Reticular formation is the part of the brain where
ascending sensory nerve pathways converge before
moving to different sensory areas in the brain. The
descending tract influences motor functions.
 Electroencephalograph (EEG)- amplifies the electrical
impulses generated by chemical processes so that there is a
permanent record of the activity of various brain structures.
 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)- a way of
tracing blood flow (activity) of the brain by infusing
radioactive material. Shows how various areas of the brain
respond to external stimuli and cognitive demands.
Cortical Arousal
Prefrontal Cortex
“executive” function of the brain. Involved in
goal-directed behavior- creation of goals, planning the route
to a goal, evaluating feedback, and making adjustments.
inhibition of responses to external sources of stimulation and
to wide range of emotions.
Highly responsive to novelty.
Allows us to anticipate and prepare for a wide variety
of situations.
Individuals with ADHD are highly distractible and quick
to respond to external sources of stimulation.
Research has shown dysfunctions in the prefrontal cortex.
The Autonomic Nervous System
Responsible for many physiological changes
that occur when person is in a state of arousal.
Blood flow increases, glucose released for
immediate energy, digestion halts, perspiration
increases, saliva/mucous secretion decreases,
muscles tense, pupils dilate, senses improve.
Pattern of responses is caused by the
hypothalamus- triggers two parallel and
complementary reactions:
Stimulates activity in the autonomic nervous
system and in the endocrine (glandular) system.
Arousal, Affect, and Performance
Arousal and affect: (inverted U-shape function)
Affect is negative or neutral at low levels of arousal,
highly positive at some intermediate level of arousal,
and negative (aversive) at very high levels of arousal.
Optimal stimulation theory: motivation to explore,
process information, and master the environment is
assumed to be governed by a preference for moderate
levels of arousal.
Individuals come to a particular situation with different
baseline levels of arousal- what is optimal stimulation for
one person is not for another.
Arousal, Affect, and Performance
Arousal and performance: (inverted U-shape function)
High arousal tends to facilitate performance on easy
or simple tasks whereas low arousal tends to facilitate
performance on difficult or complex tasks.
Understanding the U-Shaped Function:
Humans find low levels of stimulation aversive.
Humans find chronically high levels of arousal
aversive. (studies of anxiety)
Intellectual functioning becomes impaired- difficulty
learning, concentrating, and easily distracted.
Arousal, Affect, and Performance
Optimal Stimulation and Individual Goals:
Level of stimulation people prefer depends on their
goals.
Telic goals- people are motivated by the need for
achievement; they plan activities carefully and tend
to complete them.
Behavior is marked by efficiency rather than pleasure.
Serious minded and future oriented.
Paratelic goals- people are motivated by a desire to
experience pleasure in the here and now.
Behavior is marked by pleasure.
Playful and spontaneous.
Arousal and Attention
Low arousal: attention is broad/inclusive
Attend to many things; process a lot of info
High arousal: attention is narrow/exclusive
Attend to few things; focus on survival stimuli
Can lead to the reorganization of attention
Two Activation Systems:
Negative Activation (NA): avoidance system
Inhibits behaviors that might lead to pain, punishment, or
some other negative consequence.
Positive Activation (PA): approach system
Directs individuals to experiences that offer pleasure or
reward. (Governs most daily behavior- unless threatened).
Arousal Systems
Trait arousal: characterizes the individual more or
less independently of the situation
High trail arousal = anxiety, negative emotionality
- focus on threats and perceived inability to deal w/threats
State arousal: arises out of the individuals’
interaction with the environment
Sensory overload
Cognitive dissonance
Evaluation arousal
Trait Arousal (Anxiety)
The Biological Component:
Significant genetic component
Eysenck’s Theory: extraverts have relatively low arousal
level; introverts have relatively high arousal level
The Learned Social Component:
Barlow’s Theory: high arousal shifts attention to threat
and danger cues; reorganizes attention to process mainly
negative information
The Cognitive Component:
Anxiety is a personality trait; anxiety depends on how
the individual appraises the world
State Arousal:
Sensory Overload
 Response to biological rhythms or environmental
stimuli (leads to high arousal and stress)
 Leads to narrowing of attention; performance failure
The Biological Component:
 The GABA system: controls neurotransmitters
The Learned Component:
 We can learn to control arousal (restrict incoming
stimulation, relax, meditate)
The Cognitive Component:
 The way we interpret information can have an effect
on the experience of increased arousal.
State Arousal:
Cognitive Dissonance
Encountering new information that is inconsistent to
what we already know- often interferes with
performance
The Biological Component:
Leads to psychological discomfort- tension/drive state;
brain become active
The Learned Component:
Aversive state motivates individuals to take remedial
action; strategies reinforced
The Cognitive Component:
People are inclined to maintain existing beliefs- will
sometimes change attitudes to match behaviors.
State Arousal: Evaluation Arousal:
Test Anxiety
Test anxiety exerts negative impact on performance
measures; tendency to focus on intrusive thoughts
The Biological Component:
Physiological changes- increases autonomic arousal
The Learned Component:
Self-preoccupying intrusive thinking interferes with
task-focused thinking
- can be reduced when we focus on the task
The Cognitive Component:
- When test perceived as threat, problem-focused and
emotion-focused coping strategies may help
State Arousal: Evaluation Arousal:
Competition
May lead to deterioration of performance
Achievement predictions linked to mastery and work,
not competitiveness.
The Biological Component:
Competition creates high autonomic arousal
The Learned Component:
Competition is largely learned; does not necessarily
enhance performance.
The Cognitive Component:
People with strong need to win have fairly negative
views of self/world and lack poor stress coping skills.
Arousal And Performance
The best way to attain peak performance is to
learn how to manage arousal- in other words,
how to relax.
By learning to manage arousal, we can learn
to manage attention.