MOTIVATION & EMOTION
HOW ARE MOTIVATION
AND EMOTION
CONNECTED TO MY
BEHAVIOR?
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
INSTINCT THEORY
DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY
INCENTIVE THEORY
OPTIMUM AROUSAL THEORY
INSTINCT THEORY
Instincts: a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a
species.
This theory is a result of the strong influence of Darwin’s theory of evolution at the
turn of the twentieth century.
It attempted to name human behaviors as instincts, but unfortunately didn’t explain
them.
Many named aren’t instincts at all.
DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY
This theory attempts to explain why we do what we do.
Physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the
need.
Example, the need for food produces a hunger drive so we reduce that need by
eating something.
The goal: homeostasis: the maintaining of a steady internal state
A weakness of this theory is that it over simplifies us to homeostatic systems. We are
motivated by more complex forces that may or may not be completely related to our
biology.
INCENTIVE THEORY
Incentive: an external push or pull that compels our motivated behavior. In terms of drive
reduction, if we are hungry our options to satisfy that hunger are the incentives: chik-fil-a, taco
bell, Whataburger, jamba juice, starbucks…..
We need to recognize the incentives influence our behavior as well, with or without an actual
drive. How many times have you found yourself getting something to eat even though you really
aren’t hungry? Maybe an incentive was to blame.
You can relate the idea of incentives to reinforcers.
OPTIMUM AROUSAL THEORY
Some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal. Arousal that our body seeks. (This
premise conflicts with drive reduction theory.)
We have brain mechanisms that reward us for acquiring information…we desire to learn
and to know.
We are driven to explore and seek out adventure.
We are curious and sometimes we are risk-takers (some of us more than others).
Yerkes-Dodson law: moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance. We perform
better at difficult tasks with lower levels of arousal and easier tasks at higher levels of
arousal.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
His theory states that our needs
must be satisfactorily met at the
lower levels in order to acquire
the needs at the higher levels.
Someone who is hunger will have
difficulty focusing on learning
and acquiring esteem needs.
MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR: HUNGER
Brain: blood flow to the hypothalamus sends us chemical information about glucose levels
(blood sugar). When blood sugar levels are low, we are given the message to eat.
Our basal metabolic rate is a measure of how much energy we use to maintain basic body
functions when at rest.
Our adult bodies settle in on a “set range” of a balanced weight that is reflective of our
routine calorie intake and calorie burn. “Set point” is a term used to describe this weight.
What we eat is influenced by our biology and our cultures. Preferences for sweet and salty
flavors are genetic and universal.
MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR: SEX
Like hunger, our sex drive is influenced by both biological drives and external stimuli.
Fluctuations in hormones influence our drive for engaging in sex.
Brain regions respond similarly in men and women when exposed to a picture of someone they feel
passionate love for as well as when they experience orgasm.
Masters and Johnson (1966) did extensive research on people’s physiological response to the act
of intercourse. They mapped out the sexual response cycle: excitement > plateau > orgasm >
resolution
MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR: SOCIAL
We have a strong need to affiliate and to belong.
Sometimes this is so powerful that we compromise our safety. (Though it is not the
norm, it does happen.)
To be ostracized/socially excluded is actually painful to us, and the belief of not
being wanted leads people to engage in self-defeating behaviors as well as
aggression to established groups.
Social networking has allowed our sense of affiliation to grow.
MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR: ACHIEVEMENT
We are driven to achieve and to be successful. This can be prompted by internal factors
and/or external factors.
Intrinsic motivation: The desire to pursue a task based on internal rewards such as interest or
passion
Extrinsic motivation: The desire to pursue a task based on external rewards such as money,
praise, or attention
Research shows that pursuits rooted in intrinsic motivation have greater longevity, a longer
commitment.
Over use of external rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation: over-justification effect.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
JAMES-LANGE THEORY
CANNON-BARD THEORY
SCHACHTER’S 2 FACTOR THEORY
JAMES-LANGE
First we experience the physiological response than we experience the emotion.
Our heart pounds, our hands tremble, and then we experience the fear (or excitement, or the
anger…)
One draw back to this theory is that it doesn’t explain how we distinguish from one emotion to the
next since some different emotions have similar physical responses.
CANNON-BARD THEORY
Our physical responses and our emotional responses though happen separately, they
happen simultaneously.
They felt this explanation helped resolve the issue that many emotions have similar
physical responses and can therefore be distinguished through these simultaneous
processes.
My heart begins to pound as I experience fear. One does not cause the other.
SCHACTER’S 2 FACTOR THEORY
An emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal: our physical reactions
and our thoughts (perceptions, memories, interpretations, etc.) create emotion.
Cognition matters
Emotions consists of 2 factors: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal
Physical arousal fuels emotion; cognition channels it.
It seems that all of these theories have their place, all with strengths and weaknesses. As humans
we have a variety of emotional experiences that serve varying purposes. Therefore, many
theories are needed.
UNIVERSALITY OF EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS & BODY LANGUAGE
Gestures are NOT universal!
Facial expressions are pretty universal. “We all smile in the same language.” It
appears to be innate and not learned, too. Children who are blind at birth grow to
show the same facial expressions.
Degree of expression, how much it is expressed, does vary from culture to culture,
though. Members of individualistic cultures tend to be more expressive where
members of collectivistic cultures tend to be more reserved.
FACIAL FEEDBACK EFFECT
Engaging facial muscles to express a smile or a frown impacts our emotional experience.
Hold a pen in your mouth either with your teeth (engaging smile muscles) or with your lips
(engaging frown muscles) and this can impact how you view a humorous stimulus. Those “smiling”
will report finding greater humor in something.
This creates a theory that if you act a certain way then you will feel that way. “If you act
enthusiastic then you will feel enthusiastic.”
Botox injections have actually helped people to feel less depressed by paralyzing their frown
muscles!
STRESS
Stress is the process by which we relate to a threat/stressor.
Stress reaction is our physical and emotional response to a stressor.
Canadian Hans Selye’s research on stress spans 40+ years. He proposed the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to explain our biologically consistent response
to stress regardless of the stressor.
Men and women often respond differently to stress
 Women: “tend and befriend” seek to help others or
bond with others.
 Men: tend to withdraw, may use alcohol or be aggressive
 Brains scans provide evidence to support these differences.
STRESS
Leads to many psycho-physiological illness: hypertension, headaches/migraines,
susceptibility to diseases due to weakened immune system, linked to coronary heart
disease…not to mention depression and anxiety
Stress reduction is hugely important for us.
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Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Get healthy amounts of sleep
Eat well and get exercise
Reduce exposure to stressors
Time management and learn to say, “NO.”