Myers’ EXPLORING
PSYCHOLOGY
(4th Ed)
Chapter 7
Memory
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
Memory
Memory
persistence of learning over
time via the storage and
retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment
or event
Memory
Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk
Encoding
the processing of information into the
memory system
Memory
Storage
the retention of encoded
information over time
Retrieval
process of getting information out
of memory
Memory
Short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items
briefly
e.g., the seven digits of a phone number
while dialing, before the information is stored
or forgotten
Long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
Encoding
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic
Encoding
Sensory Memory
immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental
information, such as space, time, frequency
and well-learned information, such as word
meanings
Encoding
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and
conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
Encoding
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect
distributed practice yields better long term
retention than massed practice
Encoding
Time in
minutes
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2
20
15
10
5
0
8
16
24
32
42
53
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
64
Encoding
Percentage of
words recalled
Serial Position
Effect
90
80
70
tendency to recall
best the last and
first items in a list
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2 3 4
5 6
7
8 9 10 11 12
Position of word in list
What do we Encode?
Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images
Encoding
Imagery
mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic
encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable
units
like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding- Chunking
Organized information is more easily recalled
Encoding
Organization benefits memory
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
encoding)
Imagery
(visual
encoding)
Chunks
Organization
Hierarchies
Encoding
Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the memory system
Attention is selective
we cannot attend to everything in our environment
William James said that we would be as bad off
if we remembered everything as we would be
if we remembered nothing
Encoding
Forgetting as encoding failure
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Short-term
Encoding memory
Long-term
memory
Encoding failure
leads to forgetting
Encoding
Forgetting as
encoding failure
Which penny is the
real thing?
StorageRetaining Information
Sensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information
in the memory system
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no
more that a few tenths of a second
Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
StorageShort Term Memory
Short Term
Memory
limited in
duration and
capacity
“magical”
number 7+/-2
Percentage
who recalled
consonants
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
Time in seconds between presentation
of consonants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
StorageLong Term Memory
Long Term Memory
virtually limitless capacity
we don't have to discard old items to
remember new items
Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30
days
initially rapid, then levels off with time
StorageLong Term Memory
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12345
10
15
20
25
Time in days since learning list
30
How Does Storage
Work?
Karl Lashley (1950)
trained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces of
their cortex and retested their memory of maze
partial memory retained
Long-Term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief,
rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
some stress hormones boost learning and
retention
StorageLong Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memory
Implicit Memory
retention without conscious recollection
skills and dispositions
also called nondeclarative memory
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
StorageLong Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Storage- Long Term
Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
recall
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects
Retrieval
Recall
measure of memory in which the person must
retrieve information learned earlier
like fill-in-the-blank test
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person
need only to identify items previously learned
like on a multiple choice test
Retrieval
Relearning
a measure of memory that
assesses the amount of time
saved when relearning material
for a second time
Priming
activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in
memory
Retrieval Cues
Reminders of information we could not
otherwise recall
Guides to where to look for info
Context Effects
memory works better in the context of original
learning
Retrieval Cues
Percentage of
words recalled
40
30
20
10
0
Water/
land
Land/
water
Different contexts for
hearing and recall
Land/
water
Land/
land
Same contexts for
hearing and recall
Retrieval Cues
Deja Vu- (French) already seen
eerie sense that "I've experienced this before"
cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
Mood Congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood
memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
State Dependent Memory
what is learned in one state can more easily be
remembered when in same state
Retrieval
Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Encoding
Short-term
Long-term
memory
Retrieval memory
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Forgetting- Interference
Learning some items may interfere
with retrieving others
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
Forgetting- Interference
Motivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise history
Repression
defense mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and
memories from consciousness
Positive Transfer
sometimes old information facilitates
our learning of new information
Forgetting
Sensory memory - the senses momentarily
register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are
both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some items
are altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory depending on interference, retrieval cues
moods and motives, some things get
retrieved, some don’t
Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
As we process
information, we
filter, alter, or
lose much of it
Memory Construction
We filter information and fill in
missing pieces
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction
People fill in memory gaps with plausible
guesses and assumptions
Imagining events can create false
memories
Children's eyewitness recall
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some innocent people suffer false accusations
Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony
Memory Construction
Memories of Abuse
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction
Most people can agree on the following:
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories “recovered” under hypnosis or
drugs are especially unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your Memory
Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively
thinking about the material
Make material personally meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words- something already
stored
make up story
chunk-acronyms
Improve Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues- mentally
recreate situation and mood
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
to rehearse it
to determine what you do not yet
know