Chapter
Six
MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONS
1
Motivation
Energizes Behavior
Drives
Compulsions
Deprivation/
Disequilibrium
Equilibrium
Satisfaction
Directs Behavior
Goals
Organization of Effort
Reaching Equilibrium
Need
Drive
Sustains Behavior
Maintaining motivation
Persistance
Ability to change course
Importance of Feedback
Arousal
Desire to
make a good
impression
Motivation: Its Basic
Components
Direction
Maintenance
Work extra hard
Persist
Goal
Good
impression
made
3
Need Theories: A Comparison
Growth needs
5. Self-actualization needs
• Growth needs
4. Esteem needs
Deficiency Needs
3. Social needs
• Relatedness needs
2. Safety needs
• Existence needs
1. Physiological needs
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
Alderfer’s ERG theory
4
ERG Theory
(Aldefer)
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
Growth Needs
Satisfaction/Progression
Frustration/Regression
Satisfaction/Strengthening
Discussion: Considering these
theories, how might companies
motive their employees
• What types of incentives would motivate
employees
• How can employers satisfy employees’
needs
• Would the same type of incentives or
rewards satisfy all employees?
Goal Setting
People’s Behavior is Guided by Intentions
• Goals provide direction
Specific goals
are more effective
• Goals mobilize behavior Difficult goals
generate more effort
• Feedback about goal attainment sustains
behavior.
GOAL SETTING: SOME IMPRESSIVE EFFECTS
Percentage of Maximum Weight
Carried on Each Trip
100
94
90
Performance at the goal level
was sustained seven years after
the goal was first set
80
70
60
There was a dramatic
improvement in performance after a goal
was set
50
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Before
goal
After Goal
Seven
Years Later
Four-Week Periods
11
Goal Commitment
Publically stated goals
+
High nAch
+
Internal Locus of Control
Commitment to
Goals
Goal Setting Applications
• Management by Objectives (MBO)
– Performance review procedure by which employees
and managers jointly make goals for next review
period. They also work out the details for reaching
those goals. Performance is regularly monitored.
• Organizational Behavioral Management (OBM)
(remember learning theory?)
– Application of goal setting (or other behavioral science
technology) to change the behavior of large units within
the organization
• Logging example
Distributive Justice:
Perceptions of how fairly
rewards are distributed
Theory 1: Exchange Theory
If Inputs = Outputs
Effort,
Motivation,
Performance,
Skills,
Expertise
Rewards
Bonus
Promotions
Pay Raise
Recognition
Satisfaction
O
=1
I
Theory 2: Equity Theory -Compare I/O ratios to others
Self
Other
Outcome
Outcome
=
Input
Input
Satisfaction
Examples of Equity
1.
2.
Self
Other
Self
Other
4
4
4
8
4
4
4
8
3. Self
Other
4.
Self
Other
5.
Self
Other
4
4
4
8
2
4
2
2
2
4
4
8
Examples of Inequity
1. Underpayment = Self O/I < Other O/I
Example
Self
4
4
Other
8
4
2. Overpayment = Self O/I < Other O/I
Example
Self
4
4
Other
2
4
POSSIBLE REACTIONS TO INEQUITY:
A SUMMARY
TYPE OF REACTION
Behavioral
(what you can do is...)
Psychological
(what you can think is...)
Overpayment
inequity
Raise your inputs (e.g., work
harder), or lower your outcomes
(e.g. work through a paid
vacation)
Convince yourself that your
outcomes are deserved
based on your inputs (e.g.,
rationalize that you work
harder than others and so
you deserve more pay)
Underpayment
inequity
Lower your inputs (e.g., reduce
effort), or raise your outcomes
e.g., get a raise in pay)
Convince yourself that others’ inputs are really higher
than your own (e.g., rationalize that the comparison
worker is really more qualified and so deserves
higher outcomes)
Type of Inequity
14
Employee Theft: A Reaction to Underpayment
Theft Rate
percentage of unaccounted for loss of property
Employees of the factories in which there was a pay cut
Employees of the factories in which there was no pay cut
9
Employee theft was
greatest in factories
whose employees
experienced a cut
in their pay.
8
7
6
5
4
Theft rates were
identical before
pay was cut in
one of them.
Theft rates were
identical after pay
was restored to
normal levels.
3
2
1
0
Before
Pay Cut
During
Pay Cut
After
Pay Cut
15
Procedural Justice
• Perceived fairness of the processes by
which organizational decisions are made
– Voice: giving employees a say in how decisions
are made
– Error correction: allow opportunity for errors to
be corrected
– Consistently apply rules and policies
– Bias suppression
Interactional Justice
• Quality of interpersonal treatment (by
supervisor) when decisions are made and
communicated
– Information justification: thoroughness of
information received about at decision
– Social sensitivity: amount of dignity and
respect demonstrated in the course of
presenting an undesirable decision.
Applications of Justice Theories
• Employee Selection
• Pay systems
– Two-tier wage structures
– Pay secrecy
• Participative Decision Making
• Downsizing
Expectancy Theory
People will be motivated to engage in
a behavior (make a choice) to the
degree that they believe that the
behavior will lead to a valued outcome
Expectancy Theory: An
Overview
Effort
Expectancy
Performance
X
Instrumentality
Rewards
Skills and
abilities
Motivation
Job
Performance
X
Valence of
Rewards
Role perceptions
and opportunities
16
Expectancy Model:
Components
Expectancy:
The degree to which you
expect that hard work (effort)
will lead to good performance
or high accomplishments
Instrumentality: The perception that if you
perform well you will be
rewarded
Valence:
How much do you value the
rewards you may receive
Expectancy Theory, con’t
• Force: the motivation to choose a
particular course of action.
Force  E  (V * I )
Where:
E= Expectancy (probability that effort leads to
performance)
V=Valence (rating of how satisfying various rewards
will be)
I=Instrumentality (relationship between taking this
option and gaining this reward)
Example: Choose between Job A vs.
Job B
• 1. What are the possible outcomes I would get
from getting a job, and how much do I value each
of these outcome (Valence)
– Good salary
7
– Good Pension
6
– Interesting work
8
– Travel opportunities
4
Valences are measured on a scale from 1 (not at all
satisfiying) to 10 (extremely satisfying)
Expectancy example, cont
• Instrumentality: What is the relationship
(subjective correlation) between choosing
job A or job B and obtaining this outcome?
Instrumentality
for Job A
High salary
.75
Good Pension .
.25
Interesting work
.50
Travel
.75
Instrumentality
for Job B
.50
.75
.75
.25
Expectancy example, con’t
• Expectancy: What is the probability that if I
work hard, I will be successful:
– In Job A:
– In Job B:
.40
.70
Force: Which job should I choose
Force  E  (V * I )
Job A:
High salary
Good Pension
Interesting work
Travel
Valence
7
6
8
4
Instrum.
.75
.25
.50
.75
Job B.
High salary
Good Pension
Interesting work
Travel
Sum
Expectancy
Force=.40(13.75) =
Valence
Instrum.
7
.50
6
.75
8
.75
4
.25
Sum
Expectancy
Force=.70(15.00) =
V*I
5.25
1.50
4.00
3.00
13.75
.40
5.5
V*I
3.50
4.50
6.00
1.00
15.00
.70
10.5
Application of Expectancy
Theory
• Clarify expectancies between effort and
performance and follow through with
rewards.
– Pay for performance
– Stock option plans and other incentive
programs
• Provide valued rewards
– Cafeteria-style benefits
Motivating Jobs Through Job
Redesign
• Scientifically managed jobs: boring,
repetitive, few skills utilized
• Job Enlargement: add more tasks of similar
skill level to the job Horizontal Loading
• Job Enrichment: add more responsibility
and autonomy to the job Vertical Loading
Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment: A Comparison
Standard Job
Enlarged Job
Job enlargement adds more tasks
at the same level of responsibility.
Task
1
(low)
Task
2
(low)
(low) Number of Tasks (high)
(horizontal job loading)
Task
3
Number of Tasks
(horizontal job loading)
(high)
Task
1
Task
2
Task
4
(low)
Level of Responsibility
(vertical job loading)
Level of Responsibility
(vertical job loading)
(high)
Level of Responsibility
(vertical job loading)
(high)
Enhanced Job
Task
1
Task
2
(high)
Job enrichment adds
more responsibility
to the same number
of tasks.
(low)
(low) Number of Tasks (high)
(horizontal job loading)
18
Job Characteristics model
Job Characteristics
Critical Psyc. States
Skill Variety
Experienced
Meaningfulness of
Work
Task Identity
}
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Responsibility for
work outcomes
Knowledge of
Results
Growth Need Strength
Job Outcomes
Internal work
motivation
Job satisfaction
Growth
Satisfaction
Low absenteeism
High quality
performance
Enriching Jobs: Some Suggestions From
the Job Characteristics Model
Principles of Job Description
Core Job Dimensions
Incorporated
1. Combines jobs enabling worker to perform
the entire job
Skill variety
Task identity
2. Establishes client relationships allowing providers
of a service to meet the recipients
Skill variety
Autonomy
Feedback
3. Load jobs vertically allowing greater responsibility
an control over work
Autonomy
4. Open feedback channels giving workers knowledge Feedback
of the results of their work
20