UNEC – International
School of Economics
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR
Lecture 4
Motivation
Motivation
 3 key elements of M
 Early theories of M
 How to apply the major elements
 How job characteristics model motivates
 Pay and motivation as a process
What is motivation?
 Motivation is defined as the process that initiates,
guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
 Motivation is a need or desire that energizes
behavior and directs it towards a goal.
Components of motivation
 Activation involves the decision to initiate a
behavior, such as enrolling in a particular class.
 Persistence is the continued effort toward a
goal even though obstacles may exist
 An example of persistence would be taking
medicine in order to earn a degree although it
requires a significant investment of time,
energy, and resources.
 Intensity can be seen in the concentration and
vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.
Components of Motivation
5
Motivation: Its Basic Components
Arousal
Desire to
make a good
impression
Direction
Work extra hard
Maintenance
Persist
Goal
Good
impression
made
3
Need Theories: A Comparison
Growth needs
5. Self-actualization needs
• Growth needs
4. Esteem needs
Deficiency Needs
3. Social needs
• Relatedness needs
2. Safety needs
• Existence needs
1. Physiological needs
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
Alderfer’s ERG theory
4
Deficiency Needs
 The needs that must be met in order for people
to develop in a healthy fashion.
 Physiological: Fundamental biological drives,
such as the need for food, air, water, and shelter.
 Safety: The need for a secure environment and
to be free from threats of physical or
psychological harm.
 Social: The need to be affiliative – that is, to
have friends, and to be loved and accepted by
other people.
8
Growth Needs
 The needs that must be met in order for a
person to reach his or her full potential.
 Esteem: The need to develop self-respect
and to gain the approval of others.
 Self-Actualization: The need to discover
who we are and to develop ourselves to the
fullest potential.
9
Managerial Applications
 Promote a healthy
workforce
 Provide financial
security
 Provide opportunities
to socialize
 Recognize employees’
accomplishments
10
Goal-Setting Theory
 The theory according to which a goal serves as a
motivator because it causes people to compare
their present capacity to perform with that required
to succeed at the goal.
 Related Concepts:



Goal Setting: The process of determining specific levels
of performance for workers to attain.
Self-Efficacy: One’s belief about having the capacity to
perform a task.
Goal Commitment: The degree to which people accept
and strive to attain goals.
11
The Goal-Setting Process
12
Setting Effective Goals
 Assign specific goals:
People perform at higher
levels when asked to meet a
specific high-performance
goal than when simply
asked to “do their best,” or
when no goal at all is
assigned.
 Assign difficult but
acceptable goals.
 Provide feedback
concerning goal attainment.
13
S.M.A.R.T. goals
 Specific
 Measurable
 Attainable
 Relevant
 Timed
14
Components of motivation
 For example, one student might pass without
much effort, while another student will study
regularly, participate in discussions, and take
advantage of research opportunities outside of
class. The first student lacks intensity, while the
second pursues his educational goals with
greater intensity.
Types of motives
 Primary motives
 General motives
 The competence motive
 Secondary motives
 Power motive
 The achievement motive
 The affiliation motive
Theories of motivation
 Instinct theory- Instincts are
complex behaviors that have fixed
patterns throughout different
species and are not learned
(Tinbergen, 1951).For example a
woman builds different kinds of
houses, the bird builds only one
kind of nest.
Expectancy Theory
People will be motivated to engage in
a behavior (make a choice) to the
degree that they believe that the
behavior will lead to a valued outcome
Drive-Reduction Theory
 When the instinct theory of motivation failed
to explain most human motivation, it was
replaced by the drive-reduction theory.
 A physiological need creates an aroused
tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need (Hull)Drive
reduction behaviors e.g eating, drinking etc
Drive e.g hunger, thirst Neede.g food, water
etc
Optimum Arousal
 Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal,
not to eliminate it. Young monkeys and children are known
to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based
drive.
Herzberg's two-factor theory
 Fredrick Herzberg two-factor theory concludes that certain
factors in the workplace result in job
satisfaction (motivators), while others (hygiene factors), if
absent, lead to dissatisfaction but are not related to
satisfaction.
 The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene,
the presence will not improve health, but absence can
cause health deterioration.
 The factors that motivate people can change over their
lifetime. Some claimed motivating factors (satisfiers) were:
Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, and growth.
 Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy,
supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations,
salary, status, job security, and personal life.
Cognitive-Mediational Theory
 Emotions result from the cognitive appraisal
of a situation’s effect on personal well-being
 Similar to two-factor, but cognitive
mediational theory’s emphasis is on the
cognitive appraisal as the essential trigger of
the emotional response
Hierarchy of Needs
 Abraham Maslow in 1970
suggested that certain needs have
priority over others.
 Physiological needs like breathing,
thirst, and hunger come before
psychological needs such as
achievement, self-esteem, and the
need for recognition.
Expectancy Theory: An Overview
Effort
Expectancy
Performance
X
Instrumentality
Rewards
Skills and
abilities
Motivation
Job
Performance
X
Valence of
Rewards
Role perceptions
and opportunities
16
Types of Motivation
 Intrinsic motivation
 The act of being motivated by internal factors to
perform certain actions and behavior is
called Intrinsic Motivation.
 There is neither pressure nor any sort of reward for
the actions you perform due to intrinsic motivation.
 It can take the form of motivation by the work itself
when individuals feel that their work is important,
interesting and challenging and provides them with a
reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act),
opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to
use and develop their skills and abilities.
Types of Motivation
 Extrinsic motivationIn this type of motivation, the
motives originate from outside the human body.
 The driving force exists outside the human body that
stimulates the individual to perform certain actions.
 Though these motives are external to human body
but they have rewarding or punishing impact on the
individual.
Examples of extrinsic motives
 Incentives
 Bonuses
 Allowances
 Promotion
 Rewards and punishments
 Distinction certificates
 Appreciation certificates
 Prizes
Expectancy Model:
Components
Expectancy:
The degree to which you
expect that hard work (effort)
will lead to good performance
or high accomplishments
Instrumentality: The perception that if you
perform well you will be
rewarded
Valence:
How much do you value the
rewards you may receive
Expectancy Theory, con’t
 Force: the motivation to choose a particular
course of action.
Force  E  (V * I )
Where:
E= Expectancy (probability that effort leads to
performance)
V=Valence (rating of how satisfying various rewards
will be)
I=Instrumentality (relationship between taking this
option and gaining this reward)
Example: Choose between Job A vs.
Job B
 1. What are the possible outcomes I would
get from getting a job, and how much do I
value each of these outcome (Valence)
Good salary
7
 Good Pension
6
 Interesting work
8
 Travel opportunities
4
Valences are measured on a scale from 1 (not at all
satisfiying) to 10 (extremely satisfying)

Expectancy example, cont
 Instrumentality: What is the relationship
(subjective correlation) between choosing job
A or job B and obtaining this outcome?
Instrumentality
for Job A
High salary
.75
Good Pension .
.25
Interesting work
.50
Travel
.75
Instrumentality
for Job B
.50
.75
.75
.25
Expectancy example, con’t
 Expectancy: What is the probability that if I
work hard, I will be successful:


In Job A:
In Job B:
.40
.70
Force: Which job should I choose
Force  E  (V * I )
Job A:
High salary
Good Pension
Interesting work
Travel
Job B.
High salary
Good Pension
Interesting work
Travel
Valence
7
6
8
4
Instrum.
.75
.25
.50
.75
Sum
Expectancy
Force=.40(13.75) =
Valence
Instrum.
7
.50
6
.75
8
.75
4
.25
Sum
Expectancy
Force=.70(15.00) =
V*I
5.25
1.50
4.00
3.00
13.75
.40
5.5
V*I
3.50
4.50
6.00
1.00
15.00
.70
10.5
Application of Expectancy Theory
 Clarify expectancies between effort and
performance and follow through with rewards.


Pay for performance
Stock option plans and other incentive
programs
 Provide valued rewards

Cafeteria-style benefits
Motivating Jobs Through Job
Redesign
• Scientifically managed jobs: boring,
repetitive, few skills utilized
• Job Enlargement: add more tasks of similar
skill level to the job Horizontal Loading
• Job Enrichment: add more responsibility
and autonomy to the job Vertical Loading
Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment: A Comparison
Standard Job
Enlarged Job
Job enlargement adds more tasks
at the same level of responsibility.
Task
1
(low)
Task
2
(low)
(low) Number of Tasks (high)
(horizontal job loading)
Task
3
Number of Tasks
(horizontal job loading)
(high)
Task
1
Task
2
Task
4
(low)
Level of Responsibility
(vertical job loading)
Level of Responsibility
(vertical job loading)
(high)
Level of Responsibility
(vertical job loading)
(high)
Enhanced Job
Task
1
Task
2
(high)
Job enrichment adds
more responsibility
to the same number
of tasks.
(low)
(low) Number of Tasks (high)
(horizontal job loading)
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Job Characteristics model
Job Characteristics
Critical Psyc. States
Skill Variety
Experienced
Meaningfulness of
Work
Task Identity
}
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Responsibility for
work outcomes
Knowledge of
Results
Growth Need Strength
Job Outcomes
Internal work
motivation
Job satisfaction
Growth
Satisfaction
Low absenteeism
High quality
performance
Job satisfaction
 How do we measure job satisfaction ?
 What causes an employee to have a high level of job
satisfaction ?
 How do satisfied employees affect an organisation ?
Measuring job satisfaction
 Two approaches are popular.
 The single global rating is a response to one
question, such as 'All things considered how satisfied
are you with your job?' Respondents circle a n umber
between 1 and 5 on a scale from 'highly satisfied' to
'highly dissatisfied'.
 The second method, the summation of job facets, is
more sophisticated. It identifies key elements in a job
such as the nature of the work, supervision present
pa y promotion opportunities and relationships with
colleagues.