Internet Protocol Suite
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The Internet Protocol Suite
Application Layer
BGP · DHCP · DNS · FTP · GTP · HTTP ·IMAP · IRC · Megaco · MGCP · NNTP · NTP ·POP · RIP · RPC · RTP · RTSP · SDP ·
SIP ·SMTP · SNMP · SOAP · SSH · Telnet ·TLS/SSL · XMPP · (more)
Transport Layer
TCP · UDP · DCCP · SCTP · RSVP · ECN ·(more)
Internet Layer
IP (IPv4, IPv6) · ICMP · ICMPv6 · IGMP ·IPsec · (more)
Link Layer
ARP/InARP · NDP · OSPF · Tunnels (L2TP) ·PPP · Media Access Control (Ethernet, DSL,ISDN, FDDI) · (more)
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The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used
for the Internet and other similar networks. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it:
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard. Today's IP networking represents a synthesis of several
developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the Internet and LANs (Local Area
Networks), which emerged in the mid- to late-1980s, together with the advent of the World Wide Web in
the early 1990s.
The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, may be viewed as a set of layers. Each layer
solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the
upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to
the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms
that can eventually be physically transmitted.
The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122).[1][2] From lowest to highest, these are the Link
Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Layers in the Internet Protocol Suite
o
2.1 The concept of layers
o
2.2 Layer names and number of layers in the literature

3 Implementations

4 See also

5 References

6 Further reading

7 External links
[edit]History
The Internet Protocol Suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. After initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969,
DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E.
Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite
packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to
communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing
ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture
interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET.
By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the
differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and,
instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became
responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmerman and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with
important influences on this design.
The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently
transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the
edge of the network, in the end nodes. Using a simple design, it became possible to connect almost any
network to the ARPANET, irrespective of their local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem.
One popular saying has it that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin
cans and a string."
A computer called a router (a name changed from gateway to avoid confusion with other types
of gateways) is provided with an interface to each network, and forwards packets back and forth between
them. Requirements for routers are defined in (Request for Comments 1812).[3]
The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's networking research group at Stanford in the
1973–74 period, resulting in the first TCP specification (Request for Comments 675) [4]. (The early
networking work at Xerox PARC, which produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of
which existed around the same period of time, was also a significant technical influence; people moved
between the two.)
DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College
London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions
were developed: TCP v1, TCP v2, a split into TCP v3 and IP v3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability
with TCP/IP v4 — the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today.
In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University
College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in
the US, UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers
between 1978 and 1983. The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on January
1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.[5]
In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer
networking.[6] In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on TCP/IP for the
computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its
increasing commercial use.
[edit]Layers
[edit]The
in the Internet Protocol Suite
concept of layers
The TCP/IP suite uses encapsulation to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Such
encapsulation usually is aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality.
In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down
the layers, being further encapsulated at each level.
This may be illustrated by an example network scenario, in which two Internet host computers
communicate across local network boundaries constituted by their internetworking gateways (routers).
Encapsulation of application data descending through the protocol
stack.
TCP/IP stack operating on two hosts connected via two routers and
the corresponding layers used at each hop
The functional groups of protocols and methods are the Application Layer, the Transport Layer,
the Internet Layer, and the Link Layer (RFC 1122). It should be noted that this model was not intended to
be a rigid reference model into which new protocols have to fit in order to be accepted as a standard.
The following table provides some examples of the protocols grouped in their respective layers.
DNS, TFTP, TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC, NNTP, POP3, SIP, SMTP,SMPP, SNMP, SSH,
Telnet,Echo, RTP, PNRP, rlogin, ENRP
Applica
tion
Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over TCP/UDP, may also be considered part of the
Internet Layer.
Transpo
TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP
rt
IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6
Internet
OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer protocol since it runs per IP-subnet, but has been placed
on the Link since RFC 2740.
Link
ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP
[edit]Layer
names and number of layers in the literature
The following table shows the layer names and the number of layers of networking models presented
in RFCs and textbooks in widespread use in today's university computer networking courses.
Comer[11],
Stallings[13]
Kozierok[12]
Arpanet Reference
Model 1982 (RFC
871)
Five layers
Four+one
layers
Five layers
Three layers
"Internet
model"
"Five-layer
Internet model"
or "TCP/IP
protocol suite"
"TCP/IP 5layer
reference
model"
"TCP/IP
model"
"Arpanet reference
model"
Application [14][17] Application
Application
Application
Application
Application Application/Process
Transport [14]
Transport
Transport
Transport
Host-to-host
or transport
Tanenbaum
Cisco
Academy[8]
Four
layers [15]
Four layers
"TCP/IP
"Internet
[citation needed] reference
model"
model"[16]
RFC 1122 [7]
Four layers [14]
Transport
Kurose[9],
Forouzan [10]
Host-to-host
Internet [14]
Internet
Internetwork Network
Internet
Internet
Link [14]
Host-tonetwork
Network
interface
Data link
Data link
(Network
interface)
Network
access
Physical
(Hardware)
Physical
Network interface
These textbooks are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF
primary sources [18].
Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently regarding the question whether the Link Layer
(and the TCP/IP model) covers Physical Layer issues, or if a hardware layer is assumed below the Link
Layer. Some authors have tried to use other names for the Link Layer, such as network interface layer, in
view to avoid confusion with the Data Link Layer of the seven layer OSI model. Others have attempted to
map the Internet Protocol model onto the OSI Model. The mapping often results in a model with five
layers where the Link Layer is split into a Data Link Layer on top of a Physical Layer. In literature with a
bottom-up approach to Internet communication [10][11][13], in which hardware issues are emphasized, those
are often discussed in terms of Physical Layer and Data Link Layer.
The Internet Layer is usually directly mapped into the OSI Model's Network Layer, a more general
concept of network functionality. The Transport Layer of the TCP/IP model, sometimes also described as
the host-to-host layer, is mapped to OSI Layer 4 (Transport Layer), sometimes also including aspects of
OSI Layer 5 (Session Layer) functionality. OSI's Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and the remaining
functionality of the Session Layer are collapsed into TCP/IP's Application Layer. The argument is that
these OSI layers do usually not exist as separate processes and protocols in Internet applications. [Citation
needed]
However, the Internet protocol stack has never been altered by the Internet Engineering Task Force from
the four layers defined in RFC 1122. The IETF makes no effort to follow the OSI model although RFCs
sometimes refer to it. The IETF has repeatedly stated [citation needed] that Internet protocol and architecture
development is not intended to be OSI-compliant.
RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered
Harmful".[18]
[edit]Implementations
Most operating systems in use today, including all consumer-targeted systems, include a TCP/IP
implementation.
Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded
systems and KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems
and personal computers connected via serial lines.