Information Flow and Covert
Channels
November, 2006
Objectives
• Understand information flow principles
• Understand how information flows can be
identified
• Understand the purpose of modeling
information access
• Understand covert channels and how to
prevent them
Why Model?
• What is an information security model? Why use one?
• “A security policy is a statement that partitions the states
of the system into a set of authorized, or secure, states
and a set of unauthorized, or nonsecure, states” Bishop,
pg. 95
• “A security mechanism is an entity or procedure that
enforces some part of the security policy.” Bishop, pg. 98
• “A security model is a model that represents a particular
policy or set of policies.” Bishop, pg. 99
Excerpts from Computer Security by Matt Bishop
Examples
• Security Policy – e.g. Those described for use in
the military
• Security Model – e.g. Bell La Padula Model
• Security Mechanism – e.g. Virtual memory (page
tables) that support access protection checking
or
Tagging mechanism that tags all variables with
security access information
Why Formal Models?
• Regulations are generally descriptive
rather than prescriptive, so they don’t tell
you how to implement
• Systems must be secure
– security must be demonstrable --> proofs
– therefore, formal security models
• For “real systems” this is not easy to do.
Categories of InfoSec Models
• Two major categories of information security
models:
– Access Control models: protect access to data*
– Integrity Control models: verify that data* is not
changed
* applies to data in storage or in transit
Traditional Models
• Chinese Wall
– Prevent conflicts of interest
• Bell-LaPadula (BLP)
– Address confidentiality
• Biba
– Address integrity with static/dynamic levels
• Information flow
– Close “some” covert channels
Bell-LaPadula Security Model
The Bell-LaPadula (BLP) model is about
information confidentiality, and this
model formally represents the long
tradition of attitudes about the flow of
information concerning national secrets.
.
Bell – LaPadula - Details
• Earliest formal model
• Each user subject and information object
has a fixed security class – labels
• Use the notation ≤ to indicate dominance
• Simple Security (ss) property:
the no read-up property
– A subject s has read access to an object iff the class of
the subject C(s) is greater than or equal to the class of
the object C(o)
– i.e. Subjects can read Objects iff C(o) ≤ C(s)
Access Control: Bell-LaPadula
Top Secret
Read OK
Top Secret
Secret
Secret
Unclassified
Unclassified
Access Control: Bell-LaPadula
Top Secret
Secret
Unclassified
Top Secret
Read OK
Secret
Unclassified
Access Control: Bell-LaPadula
Top Secret
Top Secret
Secret
Secret
Unclassified
Read OK
Unclassified
Bell - LaPadula (2)
• * property
(star):
the no write-down property
– While a subject has read access to object O, the subject can
only write to object P if
C(O) ≤ C (P)
• Leads to concentration of irrelevant detail at upper levels
• Discretionary Security (ds) property
If discretionary policies are in place, accesses are
further limited to this access matrix
– Although all users in the personnel department can read all
[personnel] documents, the personnel manager would expect to
limit the readers of some documents, e.g. file for the Prez !
Access Control: Bell-LaPadula
Top Secret
Write OK
Top Secret
Secret
Secret
Unclassified
Unclassified
Access Control: Bell-LaPadula
Top Secret
Secret
Unclassified
Top Secret
Write OK
Secret
Unclassified
Access Control: Bell-LaPadula
Top Secret
Top Secret
Secret
Secret
Unclassified
Write OK
Unclassified
Security Models - Biba
• Based on the Cold War experiences,
information integrity is also important, and
the Biba model, complementary to BellLaPadula, is based on the flow of
information where preserving integrity is
critical.
• The “dual” of Bell-LaPadula
Integrity Control: Biba
• Designed to preserve integrity, not limit
access
• Three fundamental concepts:
– Simple Integrity Property – no read down
– Star Integrity Property (*) – no write up
– No execute up
Integrity Control: Biba
High Integrity
Read OK
High Integrity
Medium Integrity
Medium Integrity
Medium Integrity
Medium Integrity
Integrity Control: Biba
High Integrity
High Integrity
Medium Integrity
Medium Integrity
Low Integrity
Write OK
Low Integrity
Basic Security Theorem
• A state transition is secure if both the initial
and the final states are secure, so
• If all state transitions are secure and the
initial system state is secure, then every
subsequent state will also be secure,
regardless of which inputs occur.
• This is information flow!
Implementation Question
• What are “all” of the information flows?
– Files
– Memory
– Page faults
– CPU use
–?
Information Flow
• Information Flow: transmission of
information from one “place” to another.
Absolute or probabilistic.
• How does this relate to confidentiality policy?
– Confidentiality: What subjects can see what
objects. So, confidentiality specifies what is
allowed.
– Flow: Controls what subjects actually see. So,
information flow describes how policy is
enforced.
Information Flow
• Next: How do we measure/capture flow?
– Entropy-based analysis
• Change in entropy  flow
– Confinement
• “Cells” where information does not leave
– Language/compiler based mechanisms?
– Guards
What is Entropy?
• Idea: Entropy captures uncertainty
• If there is complete uncertainty, is there an
information flow?
Information Flow – Informal
• What do we mean by information flow?
– y = x; // what do we know before & after assignment?
– y = x/z;
• A command sequence c causes a flow of
information from x to y if the value of y after the
commands allows one to deduce information about
the value of x before the commands executed.
– tmp = x;
– y = tmp;
– Transitive
Information Flow – Informal
• Consider a conditional statement
– if x == 1 then y = 0 else y = 1
– what do we know before & after execution?
– What about: if x == 1 then y = 0
– No explicit assignment to y in one case
• This is called implicit information flow
Information Flow Models
• Two categories of information flows
– explicit – opn’s causing flow are independent
of value of x, e.g. assignment operation, x=y
– implicit - conditional assignment
• (if x then y=z)
• Components
– Lattice of security levels (L, 
– Set of labeled objects
– Security policy
Information-Flow Model
• Flow relation forms a lattice
• A program is secure if it does not specify
any information flows that violate the given
flow relation
Security Levels
• Linear
– Top secret
– Secret
– Confidential
– Unclassified
• Lattice
– Security level
– Compartment
Security Level Examples
• Linear
– Marking contains the name of the level
– Each higher level dominates those below it
• Lattice
– Marking contains name of level + name of
compartment (e.g. TOPSECRET OIF)
– Only those “read into” the compartment can
read the information in that compartment, and
then only at the level of their overall access
Who Can Read What?
• In a linear system?
• In a lattice system?
Universally bounded lattice
• What is a universally bounded lattice?
• “a structure consisting of a finite partially
ordered set together with least upper and
greatest lower bound operators on the
set.”
• So, what is a partially ordered set?
What’s a Partial Ordering?
• Partial ordering on a set L is a relation
where:
– for all a  L, a a holds (reflexive)
– for all a,b,c  L, if a b, b c, then a c
(transitive)
– for all a,b L, if a b, b a, then a =b
(antisymmetric)
Universally Bounded Lattice
• So, what are least upper and greatest lower
bounds?
• Suppose <= is the dominates relation. C is
an upper bound of A and B if A <= C and B
<= C. C is a least upper bound of A and B if
for any upper bound D of A and B, C <= D.
Lower bounds and greatest lower bounds
work the same way.
• See next example using Bell-LaPadula
Model
B-LP Security Level Lattice
• S is the set of all security levels
– Suppose the classifications are T, S, U
– Suppose the categories are NATO and SIOP. Then
the possible category sets are
• {}, {NATO}, {SIOP}, {NATO, SIOP}
– Then S = [ (T, {}), (T,{NATO}), (T,{SIOP}),
(T,{NATO,SIOP}), (S, {}), (S,{NATO}), (S,{SIOP}),
(S,{NATO,SIOP}), (U, {}) ].
• R dominates, as described for B-LP
– Convince yourself that the dominates relation is
reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive.
Bell-LaPadula Example
T,{NATO,SIOP}
Least upper bound:
T,{NATO,SIOP}
T,{NATO}
Greatest Lower Bound:
U,{ }
T,{SIOP}
S,{NATO,SIOP}
T,{ }
S,{NATO}
S,{SIOP}
S, { }
U,{ }
End of Lattice modeling
discussion
Consider what can be done at
compile time and execution time
Recognizing Information Flows
• Compiler-based
– Verifies that information flows throughout a
program are authorized. Determines if a
program could violate a flow policy.
• Execution-based
– Prevents information flows that violate policy.
• Both analyze code
• Execution-based typically requires tracking
the security level of the PC as the program
executes.
Compiler Mechanisms
• Declaration approach
– x: integer class { A,B }
– Specifies what security classes of information are allowed in x
• Function parameter: class = argument
• Function result: class =  parameter classes
– Unless function verified stricter
• Rules for statements
– Assignment: LHS must be able to receive all classes in RHS
– Conditional/iterator: then/else must be able to contain if part
• Verifying a program is secure becomes type checking!
Examples
• Assignments:
– x = w+y+z;
– lub{w,y,z}  x
• Compound Statements:
begin
x = y+z;
a = b+c –x
end
lub{y,z}  x and lub{b,c,x}  a
Compiler-Based Mechanisms
int sum (int x class{x}) {
int out class{x, out};
out = out + x;
}
What is required for this to be a secure flow?
x  out and out out
Compiler-Based Mechanisms
•
Iterative statements - Information can flow from
the absence of execution.
while f(x1, x2, …, xn) do
S;
•
Which direction are the flows?
– from var’s in the conditional stmt thru assignments to
variables in S
•
1.
2.
3.
For iterative statements to be secure:
Statement terminates
S is secure
lub {x1, x2, …, xn }  glb {target of an
assignment of S}
Execution Mechanisms
• Problem with compiler-based mechanisms
– May be too strict
– Valid executions not allowed
• Solution: run-time checking
• Difficulty: implicit flows
– if x=1 then y:=0;
– When x:=2, does information flow to y?
• Solution: Data mark machine
– Tag variables
– Tag Program Counter
– Any branching statement affects PC security level
• Affect ends when “non-branched” execution resumes
Data Mark: Example
• Statement involving only variables x
– If PC ≤ x then statement
• Conditional involving x:
– Push PC, PC = lub(PC,x), execute inside
– When done with conditional statement, Pop PC
• Call: Push PC
• Return: Pop PC
• Halt
– if stack empty then halt execution
Covert Channels
• Covert channels are found in everyday life
• Name some!
Covert Channels
• A path of communication that was not
designed to be used for communication
• An information flow that is not controlled
by a security mechanism
• Can occur by allowing low-level subjects
to see names, results of comparisons, etc.
of high-level objects
• Difficult to find, difficult to control, critical to
success
Covert Channels
• Program that leaks confidential information
intentionally via secret channels.
• Not that hard to leak a small amount of
data
– A 64 bit shared key is quite small!
• Example channels
– Adjust the formatting of output: use the “\t”
character for “1” and 8 spaces for “0”
– Vary timing behavior based on key
Definition of convert channel
• Definition 1 : A communication channel is covert if it is neither designed
nor intended to transfer information at all
• Definition 2 : A communication channel is covert if it is based on
transmission by storage into variables that describe resource states
• Definition 3 : Those channels that are a result of resource allocation
policies and resource management implementation
• Definition 4 : Those that use entities not normally viewed as data objects
to transfer information from one subject to another
• Definition 5 : Given a non-discretionary security policy model M and its
interpretation I(M) in an operating system, any potential communication
between two subjects I(S1) and I(S2) of I(M) is covert if and only if any
communication between the corresponding subjects S1 and S2 of the
model M is illegal in M.
Covert Channels Result From
• Transfer unauthorized information
• Do not violate access control and other security mechanisms
• Available almost anytime
• Result from following conditions
• Design oversight during system or network implementation
• Incorrect implementation or operation of the access control mechanism
• Existence of a shared resource between the sender and the receiver
• The ability to implant and hide a Trojan horse
information
encoding
Unauthorized information flow
information
decoding
Receiver
Sender
Legitimate information flow
Covert Channels
client, server and
collaborator
processes
encapsulated server can
still leak to collaborator
via covert channels
Covert storage channel
• Involves the direct or indirect writing to storage
location by one process and direct or indirect
reading of the storage by another process.
• Example storage mechanisms
• Disk space
• Print spacing
• File naming
Sender
Receiver
Storage area
(e.g. disk, memory)
Covert Channels
A covert channel using file locking
Covert timing channel
• Covert timing channel
• Signals information to another by modulating its
own use of system resource is such way that this
manipulation affects the real response time
observed by second process.
• Sequence of events
• CPU utilization
• Resource availability
Sender
Event
Event
Event
Event
Event
Receiver
Differential Power Analysis
• Read the value of a DES password off
of a smartcard by watching power
consumption!
• This figure shows simple power analysis
of DES encryption. The 16 rounds are
clearly visible.
Covert channel identification:
Shared resource matrix (SRM) method
Four steps
1. Analyze all Trusted Computing Base primitive operations
2. Build a shared resource matrix
3. Perform a transitive closure on the entries of the SRM
4. Analyze each matrix column containing row entries with either ‘R’ or ‘M’
L : legal channel exists
N : one cannot gain useful information from channel
S : sending and receiving processes are the same
P : potential channel exists
primitives
shared global variables
mode
access
R
chmod
RM
write
RM
link
RM
...
...
mode
file table
M
...
...
R : Read
M : Modify
Covert channel identification:
Shared resource matrix (SRM) method
Conditions
1. Two or more process must have access to a common resource
2. At least One process must be able to alter the condition of the resource
3. The other process must be able to sense if the resource has been altered
4. There must be a mechanism for initiating and sequencing communications
over this channel
Advantages
Can be applied to both formal and informal specifications
Does not differentiate between storage and timing channels
Does not require that security levels be assigned to internal TCP variables
Drawbacks
Individual TCB primitives cannot be proven secure in isolation
May identify potential channels that could otherwise be eliminated automatically
by information flow analysis
Covert Channel Mitigation
• Can covert channels be eliminated?
– Eliminate shared resource?
• Severely limit flexibility in using resource
– Otherwise we get the halting problem
– Example: Assign fixed time for use of
resource
• Closes timing channel
• Not always realistic
– Do we really need to close every channel?
Covert Channel Analysis
• Solution: Accept covert channel
– But analyze the capacity
• How many bits/second can be “leaked”
• Allows cost/benefit tradeoff
– Risk exists
– Limits known
• Example: Assume data time-critical
– Ship location classified until next commercial satellite
flies overhead
– Can covert channel transmit location before this?
Conclusion
• Have you ever used or even seen a
language with security types?
• Why not?
• Under what circumstances would you
worry about covert channels?
Back Ups
Formal Definition
• Flow from x to y if H(xs | yt) < H(xs | ys)
• Has the uncertainty of xs gone down from
knowing yt?
• Examples showing possible flow from x to y:
– y := x
• No uncertainty – H(x|y) = 0
– y := x / z
• Greater uncertainty (we only know x for some values of y)
– Why possible?
– Does information flow from y to x?
Iteration Example
while i < n do
begin
a[i] = b[i]; // S1
i = i + 1;
// S2
end;
– List the requirements for this to be a secure flow.
May want to draw a lattice.
– Reqt’s for each stmt S1, S2.
– Reqt’s for conditional
– “Combine” the requirements – See homework