7th. Iberoamerican Positive Psychology Meeting, 2013
Curiosity and the Pleasures of Learning:
The I/D Epistemic Curiosity Model and its
Implications for Positive Psychology
Jordan Litman
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Flordia, USA
Positive Psychology:
A Field That Emphasizes Psychological Well-being and
Personal Growth

As a gateway to psychological well-being (e.g., happiness, fulfillment, feeling one’s life has meaning
and purpose) the notion of “personal growth” is highly complex.

Personal growth involves being open and receptive to new ideas, to improving the depth of one’s
understanding of the world, to gaining insight, and to strengthening characteristics such as wisdom.

Personal growth also may refer to approaching and overcoming the challenges one may face -- to
developing self-determination and the ability to persevere when faced with a problem -- and then add to
or improve one’s current knowledge-base, skills or talents.

In this context, understanding personal growth points to the importance of taking into consideration the
processes involved in self-directed learning.

This view points to the potential importance of studying individual differences in factors (e.g., personality,
emotions, and motives) that may underlie or shape self-directed learning, and begs the question: Which
underlying factors in particular are most relevant?

Presumably such factors would correspond to individual differences in motives to seek out and
make use of new knowledge…
The Nature and Measurement of
Epistemic Curiosity (EC)
Epistemic Curiosity (EC): An innate motive that underlies inquisitiveness, seeking out new
knowledge, solving problems and improving one’s understanding of the world. Individual
differences in EC reflects approaching and using new information in order to either...
Stimulate affectively positive states of intellectual
interest (I-type)
or
Relieve negative affective states of feeling deprived of
knowledge (D-type).
These two expressions of intellectual curiosity point to
different underlying mechanisms involved in their
activation, in the associated experiences, and in the
pleasure of satiation.
The Nature of Individual Differences
in Interest (I) and Deprivation (D) types of
Epistemic Curiosity (EC)
The I/D EC Distinction– related but distinct emotional-motivational
aspects of trait curiosity that guide self-directed learning in different ways…
I-type EC
Optimally
Activated
When individuals have little or no prior
knowledge (gather/generate information by
novelty seeking, brainstorming).
Subjective
Experience
Qualitatively Less intense, “learning is
fun.” Lower intensity, but pure positive
affect (“warm fuzzies”).
Learning
Goals
To enjoy a new discovery.
Expected
Reward
The anticipated enjoyment of thinking
about new ideas (a warm, “Oh, that’s
interesting” reaction).
D-type EC
.
When individuals have some prior knowledge or
feel close to solving a problem (persistent,
determined to obtain or arrive at precise and
correct answers).
Qualitatively uncomfortably intense “need to
know”. Stronger, but involves some initial
negative affect (an “itch to be scratched”).
.
To accurately solve problems, complete
knowledge-sets, and improve the
understanding of something in particular.
The anticipated relief from dispelling an
unknown (an intensely pleasurable “Ahha! Now I understand!” moment).
The Measurement of Individual Differences
in Epistemic Curiosity (EC)
The I/D Distinction in EC – correlated but
meaningfully different traits

The EC traits are assessed by two, brief 5-item self-report
scales (Alpha >.80).

Excellent simple structure in EFA’s; excellent model fit in CFA’s.

Validated in large samples in America, Germany, and China
(language translations) suggesting cross-cultural stability of the
model. A Spanish version is in development 

I/D model also found valid for parent-reports of young children
(aged 3-7) and for self-reports of adolescents across cultures.


Both scales strongly correlated with Need For Cognition
(convergence) and are weakly related to sensation or thrill
seeking (divergence).
Although, I-type and D-type EC scale scores are strongly
related to each other, each measure has different correlates
and predicts different self-directed learning outcomes…
Diagram of the I/D EC Model
(from Litman, 2008)
Sample Items
I-type: I enjoy exploring new ideas
When I learn something new, I would like to find
out more about it
D-type: I can spend hours on a single problem because I
just can’t rest without knowing the answer.
I work like a fiend at problems that I feel must be
solved.
Key Findings:
Unique Correlates of the I-type and D-type EC Scales
Found in Empirical Studies
Consistent with the hypothesized I/D distinction, scores on each scale have different correlates and predict
different self-directed learning outcomes……
I- type EC
(Fun & Relaxed: Novelty-Seeking Oriented)
Laboratory
Studies
Academic
and
Workplace
Settings
D-type EC
(Intense & Persistent: Problem-Solving Oriented)
Positively correlated with Desire for Novelty, Ambiguity
Tolerance, Openness, Agreeableness and Extraversion;
negatively correlated with Neuroticism and Depression.
Positively correlated with Intellectual Absorption,
Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Anger; negatively
correlated with Agreeableness and Ambiguity Tolerance.
Associated with having no prior knowledge (verified by
poorer actual recall performance).
Associated with having incomplete prior knowledge
(verified by associations to TOT’s and better actual
recall performance).
Associated with lower levels of state curiosity and
predicts less actual information-seeking behavior.
Associated with higher levels of state-curiosity and
predicts more actual information-seeking behavior.
Predicts adopting Mastery oriented learning goals
(learning for personal fun).
Correlated with Mastery goals but stronger predictor of
adopting Performance and Failure Avoidant goals.
Predicts developing study motives aimed at intrinsic
interest and personal satisfaction.
Predicts using study strategies aimed at expending time
and effort to fully understand material.
On the job, predicts searching for optimal challenges,
placing importance on learning new ideas and on how
much fun working with new ideas will be.
Predicts being concerned with how understandable new
information will be and how easily it can be applied to
solving problems on the job.
The I/D EC Distinction and the Pleasures of Learning:
Hypothesized Underlying Mechanisms

How can we explain these correlated but very different ways in which EC is experienced and
expressed in order to motivate different kinds of self-directed learning.

Additionally, how can we account for the different subjective experiences associated with the
activation and satiation of each type of EC?

Previous theoretical models developed to explain curiosity and exploration, such as “Optimal
Arousal” or “Curiosity Drive”, fall short, and can really only explain one of the two types (I-type or Dtype, respectively), but not both.

Moreover, although drive and optimal arousal models are rooted in neuroscience, they are based on
a fairly archaic understanding of the physiological mechanisms that underlie motivation and reward.

Therefore, a new model is needed that explains the findings from research on the I/D EC distinction
(as well as past research on curiosity and exploration) that is informed by our contemporary
understanding of the neural underpinnings of motivation and reward.

This new model is the “Wanting/Liking” Model of Motivation...
The I/D EC Distinction and the Pleasures of Learning:
Hypothesized Underlying Mechanisms

“Wanting” and “Liking” are cooperative but dissociated
systems in the brain.

“Wanting” = mesolimbic dopamine activation. When
activated, approach behavior is motivated. Higher levels are
progressively more uncomfortable.

“Liking” = opioid activity in nucleus accumbens. Activated
when stimuli are evaluated of in terms pleasure. Higher
levels are more pleasurable.

Importantly, when wanting is high, subsequent liking
from satiation will be greater.

Research suggests these are the common substrates of
motivation and reward for food, water, sex, drugs, and even
sensory stimulation, and novel information.

Varying degrees of wanting and liking activity helps explain
the subjective experiences that reflect initial appetite and
subsequent satiation.
“Wanting” & “Liking” in the Brain
(Berridge & Robinson, 2003)
Subjective experiences associated with varying levels of
“wanting” and “liking” brain activity
The I/D EC Distinction and the Pleasures of Learning:
Hypothesized Underlying Mechanisms

“Wanting” and “Liking” are cooperative but dissociated
systems in the brain.

“Wanting” = mesolimbic dopamine activation. When
activated, approach behavior is motivated. Higher levels are
progressively more uncomfortable.

“Liking” = opioid activity in nucleus accumbens. Activated
when stimuli are evaluated of in terms pleasure. Higher
levels are more pleasurable.

Importantly, when wanting is high, subsequent liking
from satiation will be greater.

Research suggests these are the common substrates of
motivation and reward for food, water, sex, drugs, and even
sensory stimulation, and novel information.

Varying degrees of wanting and liking activity helps explain
the subjective experience that corresponds to initial appetite
and subsequent satiation.

We can apply this model to explain the I/D Distinction 
Subjective experiences associated with varying levels of
“wanting” and “liking” activity
The Role of I-type and D-type EC and Positive Psychology:
Possible Applications & Implications!
Assessment of I- and D-type EC has important implications for applications in mental
health, education and training, and for facilitating personal growth and well-being.
I- type EC
(Fun & Relaxed: Novelty-Seeking)
D-type EC
(Intense & Persistent: Problem-Solving)
A marker of positive affect and desire for new
discoveries; related to experiences of awe
and wonder.
Associated with a willingness to work hard, and
to developing clear definitions of problems in
order to solve them.
Motivates a “search for knowledge” broadly
defined; associated with placing a greater
value on information that leads to new ideas.
Motivates rigorous, more narrowly defined
search; associated with placing greater value on
information that builds on what is known.
Greater acceptance of ambiguities; life is
more about asking questions than getting
specific answers.
Lesser acceptance of ambiguity; life is about
making sense of things and getting clear, usable
answers.
Corresponds to discovering new areas of
pervasive interest, and greater openness to
unexpected feedback or discoveries
Associated with concern over objective accuracy
and with fully understanding newly gathered
information.
Predicts seeking out new challenges, and
focusing on how much fun learning and
working with new ideas will be.
Greater focus on making sense of new
information and applying it to solving problems.
Assessing levels of Iand D-type EC may
make it possible to
tailor therapies or
teaching/training to
best suit an individual’s
natural tendencies to
approach new
information.
Assessment may
clarify who would
benefit most from
brainstorming or from
“digging deeply”.
Moreover, following
assessment,
individuals could be
advised on how to
better apply their I- and
D-type tendencies in
their daily lives.
An Open Question for Future Work on the I/D Model:
Curiosity about one’s Limits and Capabilities
Achieving personal growth requires individuals to question their limits, capabilities, and potentials.
How might the I/D model be applied to this view?
Questions about one’s Limits and Capabilities
I-type Oriented
“What are some new areas of potential
interest I might explore?”
“Can I do it? Do I have it in me to even
try?”
D-type Oriented
“Can I develop a concrete plan of action
on how to proceed?”
“How will I accurately determine when I’ve
completed my objectives?”
“How much fun will it be to pursue this
goal?”
“How much effort will be needed to pursue
this goal?”
“Where will this take me? How will the
new experience change me or my life,
broadly speaking?”
“What specifically will I gain as a person or
learn about myself from trying? From
succeeding? From failing?”
This line of inquiry is truly
at the intersection of:
(1) Our present
understanding of the
nature and assessment of
curiosity,
(2) Future research on the
role of curiosity in positive
psychology,
(3) The development of a
deeper understanding of
the factors that shape
personal growth!
Want more information about the I/D Model of EC?
Whether broadly interested and wish to explore further…
or
Quite intrigued with specific questions you need answered…
Please email drjlitman@gmail.com for reprints, psychometric
instruments, interest in collaboration, details, etc.
Thank you for your time!