Literacy and Cognition:
The Role of the Brain in Learning
to Read
Claire Lenz, Ed.D.
Associate Professor
St. Joseph’s College
Patchogue, New York
The brain’s structure is
determined by experience
• The number of connections made in the
brain depend upon the amount of
exposure infants have to language,
sounds, sights, smells, and interactions
with parents and caregivers. The brain has
plasticity.
Changes in the
environment and
experiences alter the
structure of the brain.
This is the plasticity of
the brain making each
learner unique.
Brain research shows that every child has
unlimited potential for learning.
• The acts of reading and writing depend upon
neural networks working together to extract
meaning from sources of information: letters,
sounds, spelling patterns, cluster endings,
syntax, and semantics.
• Teachers must identify the ways in which
students process information, and then provide
differentiated instruction.
Reading and writing develop from
language acquisition.
• The basics of language are hardwired into the
human brain before birth. Reading does not
come naturally to the human brain.
• Only face to face conversations, not television
facilitate children’s language and vocabulary.
The size of the child’s vocabulary correlates with
how often the parents talk with the child (Hart &
Risley, 1995; Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl, 1999).
What are the functions of the brain
that affect learning to read?
Memory- immediate, working, and long term
 Immediate memory holds information for a few
seconds.
 Working memory can hold information for
minutes to days.
 Long-term storage holds information for years.
Beginning readers and struggling readers
have difficulty understanding long sentences
because of the limited capacity of working
memory.
Dory in Finding Nemo had a problem with
short term and working memory.
Successful reading involves two basic processes:
decoding and comprehension generated by three
neural systems (visual and auditory processing, and
frontal lobe for meaning.
DECODING
(Alphabetic Principle)
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Fluency
VISUAL Processing
AUDITORY PROCESSING
What do I see?
(Orthography)
What do I hear?
(Phonology)
COMPREHENSION
What does it mean?
(Semantics)
Frontal Lobe
HOW DOES THE BRAIN READ?
• Visual information is processed mainly in
the right hemisphere (words and letters).
• The visual information is transferred to the
left hemisphere through the corpus
callosum.
• The visual information is converted into
language by the angular gyrus.
• The Wernicke’s area constructs meaning
from the text.
• The Broca’s area is activated for speech
and sounding out words.
Stanford StudyProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Early Edition: 2/25/2003
Temple, Gabrielli, et. Al Cornell University Stanford University
Normal Readers
Dyslexic Readers
Frontal
&
Temporoparietal
Frontal
but NO
Temporoparietal
Parietotemporal
Lobe
Frontal
Lobe
Occipitotemporal
Area
(word form)
Broca’s
Area
Temporal
Lobe
Comparison of the Struggling
Reader and Skilled Reader
Struggling Reader
The printed word
stimulates the visual
cortex, which passes the
word to the parietotemporal and Broca’s
areas where it is
analyzed for phonemes
and pronunciation. A
visual word form is
produced with the
meaning of the word. If
the word form cannot be
found, it is sent back to
the visual cortex for
more input.
Skilled Reader
The printed word is sent
along to the occipitotemporal area where all
the information about
the word is quickly
generated and the child
moves on to the next
word. As the number of
words in the word form
area grows, the child
becomes a more skillful
reader.
Gender Differences
• Four times as many boys as girls are
diagnosed with dyslexia.However current
research indicates that girls are often not
diagnosed properly.
• Girls have a wider corpus callosum which
encourages greater use of the right and
left brain hemispheres in the reading
process.
Indicators of Reading Problems
• Kindergarten and First Grade- Poor lettername fluency, nonsense word fluency, and
oral reading fluency.
• Second Grade- Measures of school
performance- Children who do not
respond to treatment when the primary
cause is not social or economic
disadvantages, mental deficiency, or
linguistic and cultural diversity.
Can the brains of struggling
readers be rewired?
• Syracuse University Study- MRI images
before and after interventions with dyslexic
readers- Second and third grade dyslexic
readers received 50 minutes of daily
tutoring on activities related to the
alphabetic principle. After a year’s
intervention MRI images showed the
emergence of processing systems on the
left side of the brain like good readers
(Shaywitz, 2003).
University of Washington MRI Study – After
28 hours of instruction in phoneme and
morpheme mapping, the fMRI scans of ten
dyslexic children showed neural
processing characteristics of typical
readers ((Aylward et al., 2003).
The Dyslexic Reader
• 2.8 million of school-aged
children are classified as
dyslexic
• 80% of learning disabled
students are struggling or
dyslexic readers.
• Dyslexic readers have
less gray matter for
processing information
and white matter for
transferring information in
the parietal temporal area
of their brains.
Hemisphere Symmetry and Handedness of
Dyslexic and Non-Dyslexic Readers
• Right-Handed nondyslexic readers have a
larger left brain
hemisphere.
• Dyslexic right-handed
readers have symmetrical
right and left hemispheres
• Right- handed with right
hemisphere dominance
are at-risk for reading
problems.
• Right brain symmetry
related to poor
recognition of sounds of
right-handed children.
• Those students with no
hand preference from low
SES families are at-risk
for reading failure. Those
from higher SES families
are at a lower risk.
• Left-Handed with a larger
hemisphere on the right
are not at-risk.
• Left-handed children with
left brain dominance are
at-risk for reading failure.
More Brain Research Findings for Dyslexics
• Poor visual memory for
language symbols
• Neurons in the auditory
and visual system are
smaller in dyslexic
readers than average and
above average readers
(magno and parvo cells).
• Slower processing takes
place across the corpus
callosum
Computer- Based Attention
Therapy
• Fast forWord- The program helps
students recognize the difference between
onset sounds (Scientific Learning
Corporation). It synchronizes auditory and
visual processing.
For example …
toy
boy
• Earobics by Cognitive Concepts, Inc.This program is a combination of computer
technology, multimedia tools, and print
materials to support phonological
awareness, vocabulary, fluency, phonics,
and reading comprehension.
http://www.earobics.com/demos/meta.html
Cross Training – Encouraging
the Right and Left Hemispheres
to Work Together
• http://School.Discovery.com/brainboosters
• To fully engage the child’s brain, provide
activities that encourage crossing over from
one side of the body to the other.
Testing Results for Second and Third Grade
Struggling Readers
Auditory and Visual Memory
6
4
8
8
8
Scores
• Tests of auditory and
visual memory tests
revealed deficits for
struggling readers.
• The mean scores for
auditory and visual
memory tests for primary
students in the study were
3 for auditory memory and
5 for visual memory with a
satisfactory score being 810 for both tests.
5
3
2
0
Auditory
Mean
Auditory Sat. Visual Mean
Score
Visual Sat.
Score
Fieldwork Students
Auditory Mean
Auditory Sat. Score
Visual Mean
Visual Sat. Score
Testing for Auditory and Visual Discrimination
Auditory and Visual Discrimination
20
10
16
14
15
Scores
• A mean score of 8
was determined for
auditory
discrimination with a
satisfactory score of
14-16 and a mean
score of 10 was
found for visual
discrimination with a
satisfactory score of
16.
10
8
5
0
Auditory
Mean
Auditory Sat. Visual Mean Visual Sat.
Score
Score
Fieldwork Students
Auditory Mean
Auditory Sat. Score
Visual Mean
Visual Sat. Score
Percentages Below Satisfactory
• Phonemic Awareness
Medial consonants80%
Consonant digraphs72%
Vowel digraphs- 77%
Syllabication- 55%
• Structural Analysis
Adding endings- 82%
Prefixes and suffixes65%
Contractions- 55%
• Word Association
Antonyms- 51%
Synonyms- 62%
• Vocabulary- 67%
• Comprehension
Weakest area- silent
reading- 85%
Comprehension Skills:
Main idea- 57%
Cause and effect- 63%
Details- 70%
Sequencing- 68%
Inference- 90%
• Writing Skills:
Holistic Score: 1.8 on a
4-Point Scale
Meaning- 2.4
Development- 2.0
Organization- 1.8
Language- 1.5
Mechanics- 1.2
Integrating Brain Research into
Literacy Courses
• Teach strategies for improving memory and
retention:
- Use storytelling
-Make your introductions to text material
relevant to students’ perceptions. Check
their prior knowledge and build upon it.
-Model constantly: word recognition, vocabulary,
comprehension strategies
- Use visuals, suggest mnemonic devices, and
incorporate a variety of practice formats
(dry erase boards, show me boards, letter tiles,
magnetic letters, computer programs, or
simulations).
- Think and talk aloud-Teacher models the steps in
-
-
cognitive processing. Talk aloud is an excellent
memory enhancer.
Have students take notes as they read.
Encourage rereading of topic sentences in
paragraphs to remember information.
Use humor
Play games such as Concentration, Bingo, Go
Fish, and Phonics, Word Recognition, and
Vocabulary Rummy.
Create flash cards and tachistoscopes for word
recognition.
Use a variety of graphic organizers to encourage
organization and visual memory.
- Work with parents regarding reviewing
vocabulary or new words with their
children prior to bedtime to encourage
long-term memory.
- Use closure strategies- What was one
new word you learned today? Tell your
partner about the main character in the
story.
Instruction Based Upon Research
Findings (National Reading Panel
(2000) National Research Council
(1998)
• Decoding
- Teaching phonemic awareness
- Phonics instruction
- Spelling and invented spelling
• Fluency Instruction
How to Overcome Reading
Disabilities
• Development of Phonemic Awareness
Rhyming
OnsetRime
Blending
Sentence
Segmentation
Blending & Segmenting
Individual Phonemes
Syllable
Segmentation
& Blending
Development of Fluency
• Short intense practice periods with guided
repeated oral reading with systematic and
explicit guidance and feedback from the
teacher produces high accuracy and
automaticity.
• Other Strategies: Read aloud, shared
reading, neurological impress, tapeassisted reading, partner or paired
reading, and readers’ theater.
•
•
•
•
Reading Comprehension
Teaching Vocabulary
Critical Reading Strategies
Working with English Language
Learners and Learning Disabled
Students
Development of Comprehension for
Struggling Readers
• Sentence Level and Paragraph Level Comprehension
• Reciprocal Teaching (Palinscar and Brown, 1984)Predicting, Questioning, Clarifying, and Summarizing. It
requires the brain to integrate prior knowledge with new
learning, make inferences, maintain focus, and use
auditory rehearsal to enhance retention of learning.
• Questioning the Main idea- Students practice asking
questions about each paragraph’s main idea.
• Questioning the Author
• QAR-Question Answer Read
• Story Mapping- A visual tool for identification of story
elements.
• The PASS Process- Preview, Ask,
Summarize, and Synthesize
• Collaborative Strategic Reading
Teacher-Led Activities
Preview the reading
Click and clunk- Clicks are parts that make sense;
clunks are parts or words that don’t. Students
identify the clunks and strategies are used to build
understanding.
Get the gist- Tell in as few words as possible what
the selection is about.
Wrap-up- Students review what they have learned.
Student-Led Activities
Students form a cooperative learning group to practice
Collaborative Strategic Reading
–
–
–
–
–
Leader
Clunk expert
Announcer
Encourager
Reporter
Higher order thinking activities build brain connections:
 Compare and contrast elements
 Classify information
 Inductive thinking-drawing conclusions from specific
parts
 Engage in deductive thinking- predictions based on
generalizations
 Design experiments
 Solve real-world problems
 Analyze error patterns Analyze the author’s viewpoint
 Encourage creative thinking through the visual and
performing arts
 Analyze cause and effect patterns
Conclusion
Teacher preparation programs have the
responsibility to instruct their undergraduate and
graduate students in the findings of scientific
studies on brain research. Their graduates need
to know the components of a balanced literacy
program as well as the seven levels of brain
processing that must be integrated:
 Phonological- the sound system of language,
phonemic awareness, and sound-letter
correspondence
 Graphic- perceiving letters and symbols visually
 Lexical - recognizing the structure of words,
such as prefixes and suffixes
 Syntactic- rules of grammar and discourse
 Semantic- meaning and thematic structures
 Communicative- expressing purpose and
intentions
 Cultural- shared beliefs and knowledge
For more information, please contact:
Dr. Claire Lenz
St. Joseph’s College
155 West Roe Boulevard
Patchogue, New York 11772
(631)-447-2244) email: clenz@sjcny.edu