Animal Behavior Study Guide #2
Ch. 13, 4, 5, 6(pp. 139-141); Activities 3, 4 and 5
Note: The second midterm will be cumulative in that much of what we are now dealing with will link back to previously covered material. Concentrate your studying on material since the last exam, but you should also read through the earlier material for general concepts.
6. Endocrine system a.
definitions: endocrine gland = ductless gland which secretes product (hormone) into the blood hormone = chemical released by a gland which communicates with target cells or organs; mood setting - explain. target organ (cells) = the tissue that responds to the hormone feedback mechanism or loop = The resulting physiological or behavioral changes inhibit further hormone secretion. b.
Hormones often have direct effects on the changes in anatomy and behavior at the onset of sexual maturity. Be able to describe work that shows this in rats. c.
Sensitivity to hormone may change with environmental changes such as temperature. Be able to describe work that shows this. d.
Sensitivity to hormones may change with social environment. Be able to describe work that shows this.
7. Biological Rhythms a.
Definitions: period = the length of time to complete one cycle phase = a recognizable portion of a cycle epicycles = variable length, but very short - minutes long tidal rhythms = approx. 12 hr lunar rhythms = approx. 28 days circadian rhythms = approx. 24 hours circannual rhythms = approx. 1 year intermittent rhythms = variable, triggered by environmental cues b.
Characteristics of rhythms:
 unaffected by temperature, metabolic poisons

 self-sustaining entrained to “zeitgeber” or particular environmental cue that resets clock each cycle
 free-running cycle occurs when zeitgeber is absent c.
Location and physiology of pacemaker for rhythm - variable
 know examples in invertebrates and vertebrates of the control and physiology of the pacemaker
- Saturniid moths, fruitflies, mammals, birds d.
Genetic clock and the model for genes regulating the circadian clock in insects and mammals e.
Significance of biological rhythms
 daily patterns, hibernation, migration, reproductive patterns. Be able to give examples of studies documenting how these are regulated and the importance of the biological rhythm to the animals.
In particular, know the White-crown sparrow example dealing with gonad development and their reproductive cycle and what regulates it.
8. Communication and Aggression:
 Communication: The release of 1 or more stimuli by 1 individual that alters the likelihood of reaction by another.

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Basic Principles:
1) Discrete Signals = can be presented in a simple off or on manner
- yes or no, present or absent
2) Graded Signals = message is variable with intensity and length of signal given.
3) Composite Signals = by combining signals, they can take on new or added meaning
- composite chemical signals or body motions ex) some wasps ex) some ants ex) horse a. Subtype of composite signal = meta communication
- in which one signal changes the meaning of subsequent beh. ex) play behavior in dog ex) smile while saying an insult or chasing
4) Context of signals is important for some species signals may change meaning depending on the context. ex) male E. Kingbird gives the “kitter” call a. when establishing a territory - used to attract a female b. if female is present, it is used to appease female & enable his approach ex) hand wave
Signal Modes
1) Visual signals: a. can be turned off and on rapidly b. complexity of visual signals can be high c. not effective in murky water, over long distances, around corners (dense undergrowth), or at night (unless involves light flashes) d. produced in different ways:
1. body posture and movement
2. color (physical or chemical)
3. light
2) Acoustic signals: a. turned off and on rapidly b. effective at night c. effective over long distances d. sender does not have to be visible e. produced in different ways:
1.
by production of some other activity
2.
banging or rubbing body part against substrate
3. rubbing body parts together = stridulation
4. vibrating membrane - vocal cords, other throat modification, air sacs
5. pushing air through spiracles
6. rattling body parts
3) Tactile Signals a. can be turned off and on rapidly b. can send complex information c. only effective over short distances d. can be over long time periods ex) courtship in Cranefly: ex) among primates ex) sematectonic communication

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4) Chemical Signals a. most universal b. can not be turned off and on - more long term communication c. effective long distances d. effective around corners e. sender can be hidden f. terms associated with chemical signals: pheromone: chemical signal between individuals of the same species allomone: chemical signal between ind.’s of different spp., emitter benefits kairomone: different species, receiver benefits g. sources of chemical signals -
- exocrine glands - ex) black-tailed deer ex) female wolf spider
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- feces and urine (above example) and surface chemical perspiration
- in shell or exoskeleton
Signal Origins and Evolution
1) Semanticization - Any evolutionary change that adds to the communication function of a signal.
2) Ritualization - a behavior pattern changes to become more effective as a signal
Display - ritualized behavior used in communication
-- some movement is functional in one context, then acquires a second function
-- behavior may become simplified, stereotyped, or exaggerated
Intention movement - Initial movements of a larger act are performed as a display
Smiling and laughing -overhead
Displacement movement - conflict between 2 or more behaviors.
9.
Dominance Interactions
Aggression - complex behavior that causes the abridgement of the rights of another.
Agonistic behavior - preferred = any activity related to fighting whether aggression, conciliatory, or retreat.
Major Recognized Forms:
1) territorial and spacing - defend core area or home range
2) dominance - dominant benefits by excluding the subordinates
3) sexual - forced copulation or association (m - f), or intrasexual competition
4) parental disciplinary aggression - keep kids near, moving, break up fighting, etc
5) weaning aggression in mammals
6) predatory and antipredatory aggression
Dominance Systems
1) dominance hierarchy = sustained set of aggressive-submissive relationship among a group of animals.
2) types: linear A B C triangular A
B C coalitions - of 2 or more ind. may become dominant where neither could alone

A but C+B
B C A a. When all aggression goes from dom. to sub. = Peck Right b. When most goes from dom. to sub. = Peck Dominance
(terminology developed with chicken studies) c. Absolute dominance hierarchies = rank order is the same wherever the group goes and whatever the circumstances. d. Relative dominance hierarchies = even highest ranking individual yields to subordinate under certain situations.
3) Benefits of Being Dominant a. priority access to food, nesting sites, and other needs b. priority access to mating opportunities.
3) Compensations to being subordinate a. subordinates may emigrate - attempt to be dom. elsewhere b. by waiting, build resources and may become dominant. c. dom. hierarchy actually reduces agonistic behavior. Everyone knows prior to contact dom and sub. relationships once they are established. No fighting after that. a.
Social group may provide better protection and resources to sub. than being on own.
10. Behavioral Adaptations for Survival and Anti-predator Behavior a.
Adaptationist Approach – Assumes behavior is adaptive and then uses observation, experimentation, comparative methods and cost/benefit analysis (optimality theory) to determine what selection pressures are acting on the behavior.
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Mobbing in Black-headed gulls = example of these different approaches
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Know what Fitness and relative fitness mean
 Comparative method, developing testable predictions, and principle of parsimony
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Optimality and the use of a cost/benefit analysis
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Understand Game Theory – the concept was reinforced with the dragonfly fitness game done in class
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Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS) – a strategy that if adopted by most members of a population cannot be bettered by an alternative strategy. i.
May observe alternative strategies – when organisms do not have the same features such as size to begin with, or you have frequency dependent selection, or the environment is changing and what you are observing is a transition period.
b. Anti-predator behavior – an example of adaptations for survival
 Primary Defensive Behavior = operates whether or not predator is there. - Decreases
 probability of an encounter with a predator
Secondary Defensive Behavior = once detected by predator - increases probability of surviving encounter
Ex.
Noctuid moths - A1 receptors = primary; A2 rec. = secondary
 Primary mechanisms:
1.
Crypsis (camoflaging) - Body color: Disruption pattern: Color and body form
a. behavior reinforces color pattern
2. Bluff - look like what you are not

 a.
again behavior is important
3. Aposematism - warning coloration (I include sound)
Secondary defenses :
1.
Misdirection of attack
2.
Distraction
3.
Defensive secretions sting - (female Hymenoptera, males lack sting but behave as though stinging you)
4.
Evasive behavior
5.
Group defense
11.
Feeding behavior
 The goal of most animals is to manage to get enough food to sustain life and reproduce.
1.
feeding behavior requires an expenditure of energy (cost)
2. animals should try to reduce the cost of feeding while trying to maximize the net gain in energy
(which can then be put toward reproduction)

Net (energy) gain = Food acquired - energy required to get it
(benefit) (cost)
The theory that animals should behave optimally by maximizing gain and minimizing costs =
Optimality theory ex. Crow foraging
Prediction 1: crows should only feed on large whelks and ignore small ones.
When given a selection, crows ignored all but the largest whelks
Prediction 2: crows should choose a dropping height that will minimize the total expenditure of energy. Average ht crows used = 5.2
- close to prediction
Conclusion : The crow does indeed seem to be programmed (genetically predisposed) to choose the size of whelk and the dropping height that maximizes its net energetic profit. Since the crow's behavior fit the predicted pattern, the constraints on the behav. id'd by Zach appear to be correct.
Factors: 1) size of whelk, 2) energy spent in flight, 3) competition, 4) loss of whelk if dropped from too high)
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Marginal Value Theorem
longer in the patch, the less the return in food
When should an animal decide to go to a new patch? a.
depends on time to locate and travel to a new patch b.
optimum time to move is when the max. gain is attained
Understand the graph gone over in class
Other factors influencing foraging behavior - besides direct cost of getting food and net energy gain:
1.
nutritional constraints on foraging a.
Animals do not just need calories (energy). Variety, to ensure get all of the recommended daily allowance. b.
Often a particular mineral or amino acid (protein building block) may be in low concentration in normal diet. Animal must make a special effort to feed on particular food which balances its diet or consume enough of its normal diet to get the limiting mineral or aa.
Ex : Lycosid spider
Ex : Moose - terrestrial plants - high energy but aquatic plants - high sodium (needed)
Ex : aphids - feed on plant juices - c.
plants or prey species may have defenses such as toxins. This may force animals to search out and feed only on certain plants and animals that have lower toxin levels.
Ex: Tassel-eared squirrels - feed on bark of ponderosa pines.

2.
Risk of predation
3. Selective advantage to being aware of alternative foraging locations
Example: small bird - good seed patch (might not last)
 Foraging methods
1.
Herbivory: feed on plants = primary level of food production
A.
Plant defenses: mechanical defenses (hairs with hooks, thorns, tough outer coating) and chemicals which reduce digestibility or are toxic
B.
Pollination
C.
Seed Dispersal
2. Parasitic habits
A.
Shape and behavioral adaptations to feeding on a host - examples
B.
Parasitoids - do this but also ultimately kill the host.
3. Carnivore habits - Predation (hunting and killing) a.
Chase down prey - all familiar b.
Aggressive mimicry (lie in wait strategy) mimicry = imitate something that you are not. In this case animals imitate something innocuous such as a flower or mate in order to get close enough to another animal to kill it. b.
preying mantid or spiders = flower or leaf c.
fishing with lures : Anglerfish d.
lightning bug females
Photuris female eats males of Photinus spp.
-------------------------------------- c.
Tool use - extend an animal's abilities
a. chimpanzees b. bubble-net feeding in humpback whales
4.
Cooperative or social foraging
5.
Other
12. Habitat selection - selection of a particular area in which to live
 The fact that habitat preference is innate in some species - Coal and Blue Titmice
 The observed habitat preferences must help to cause an animal to make adaptive choices about where to live.
- factors restricting habitat use: a. climate, physical +/or chemical factors, competition, predation, location of food, etc. ex. Polistes nests - picked off out in open ex. Competitive exclusion: barnacles ex. cottonwood aphids Pemphigus competition for nest sites
 a. females choose larger leaves and will double up only if benefits outweigh nesting on a smaller leaf
Spacing - populations
Regular - even dispersal of individuals over the habitat (territorial)

Random - rare -
Clumped - social groups, family groups, mating clusters, etc.
Spacing - Individual
Home range = area in which an animal normally lives exclusive of migrations, emigrations, dispersal movements or unusual erratic movements.
Core area = heavily used areas of home range like nest, feeding sites, and resting sites.

This will probably be the end point of the second midterm for this semester.
13.
Territorial Behavior - Territory = an area or space, which is defended through aggression or less overt behavior against other organisms.
 Whether a territory is maintained and the size of that territory will depend on:
a. the cost of defending the area
- how many competitors?
- how dispersed is the resource
- how predictable is resource?
b. the benefits of defending the area
gain in resources?

attracting a mate?
When does being territorial pay off? a.
when there is a resource worth defending:
 predictable in time and space
 defendable given the number of competitors.
 concentrated or rich resource
 benefits exist ex. pied wagtails ( Motacilla alba: small birds ex. Chipmunks Eutamias dorsalis - open terrain, territory holder and E. umbrinus - forest, no territories
 Territory may be required for reproduction (benefit is very high). Lek = small territory for display, opposite sex chooses among displaying individuals ex. sage grouse - males stand out in area, individual stamping ground, puff feathers, and call or
 stamp feet - dance what are consequences? a. Territories exclude others.
- most exclusions are temporary however
- territorial holders have alot at stake in dispute - will tend to fight much harder than newcomer
- newcomer will do better if as soon as it is fairly clear that he might get hurt in the fight, he runs away.