THE WORK ON A COMMON
CONTRACT LAW
University of Oslo
Prof. Giuditta Cordero Moss

• Globalisation, Regionalisation
• Common regulation of sectors
• Contract law not harmonised
• Mechansims that permit cross-border contracts
• Vision: a common contract law
• EU action plan
• Does vision solve the percieved problems?

• Tender for construction in Italy
• Norwegian contractor makes a bid
• Bid based on local subcontractors’ prices
• Contractor is awarded the contract
• Tender for construction in
England
• Norwegian contractor makes a bid
• Bid based on local subcontractors’ prices
• Contractor is awarded the contract

• ”This offer is binding on the offeror and cannot be revoked before 30 days have elapsed from the date hereof”
• Subcontractor revokes the offer before the term (but after the the contract was awarded)

• Italian law:
• English law:
– Firm offer cannot be revoked before the term
– Subcontractor is legally bound
– Firm offer is not binding unless there is consideration
– Subcontractor is not bound

• Norwegian producer purchases components from Italian supplier
• Force Majeure circumstance reduces supplier’s capacity
• Supplier has delivery obligations towards plurality of creditors
• At reduced capacity supplier can meet obligations towards only one creditor
• Norwegian producer purchases components from English supplier
• Force Majeure circumstance reduces supplier’s capacity
• Supplier has delivery obligations towards plurality of creditors
• At reduced capacity supplier can meet obligations towards only one creditor

• ”Non performance by a party hereto of its obligations hereunder is excused if such party was prevented from fulfilling its obligations by an event beyond such party’s control, that was not foreseeable and that could not be prevented or overcome by the prevented party using reasonable efforts.”

• Italian law
– Supplier’s obligations are reduced pro rata with the capacity reduction
– Purchasers can demand delivery pro rata with the other creditors
• English law
– ”Frustration kills the contract”
– Impossibility to deliver is deemed to be a consequence of supplier’s own fact
– Purchasers can demand whole delivery

• Conflict rules determine the law of what country governs
• Conflict rules are part of each country’s own law
• EU has harmonised conflict rules
• Norway has own conflict rules

• Judge applies his own conflict rules
• First step: identify forum
• Then: apply conflict rule
• So: conflict rule determines what country’s substantive law governs the contract

FIRM OFFER FORCE MAJEURE
• Forum: Lugano convention, art. 2 or
5.1
• Governing Law:
– Italian subcontractor:
Italian law
– English subcontractor:
English law
• Forum: Lugano convention, art. 2 or
5.1
• Governing Law:
– Italian supplier: Italian law
– English supplier:
English law

• Assumption:
– Plurality of systems is confusing
– Conflict rules are complicated
– Domestic legal system are meant for domestic transactions
• Vision:
– An international system deriving from the parties’ own practice

• ”Principles rooted in the good sense and common practice of the generality of civilised nations”
• Contractual practice
• Model laws, conventions
• Standard contracts
• Private codifications
• Restatements

• To improve lex mercatoria’s weaknesses:
– Difficult to determine
– Not systematic
– Too vague
• 1994, UNIDROIT Principles of International
Commercial Contracts
– Not a codification of existing principles
– Systematic set of principles based on consensus among international academics

• ”Commission on European Contract Law”
• 1995-2002: PECL I,II and III: http://www.cbs.dk/departments/law/staff/ol/c ommission_on_ecl/
• Aim of PECL
– Binding for all EU public contracts
– Binding for private contracts, if referred to by parties
– Long term: binding for all contracts

• Communication from the Commission to the
Council and the European Parliament on
European Contract Law – COM (2001) 398 final,
11.7.2001
• Requests comments on four alternatives:
– Leave it to market forces
– Through research establish general European principles
– Improve coherence of existing European law
– Enact a European code

• 181 answers
• Each alternative has been supported and criticised
• Working groups established to develop each alternative (especially 2 and 4)
• In some academic circles focus on answer from:
– Commission on European Contract Law and Study
Group on a European Civil Code (PECL)

• A more coherent European contract law – An action plan – COM (2003) 68 final, 12.2.2003:
– Continue sector-based approach
– Increase coherence of existing European law (CFR)
– Support development of European standard contracts
(webpage)
– Examine possibility of general measures, such as “an optional instrument”
• “European contract law and the revision of the acquis: the way forward” – COM(2004) 651 final

• Common Frame of Reference for Acquis
Comunitaire
– Does not cover general contract law
• EU Standard contracts
– Must be referred to
– Do not solve interpretation problems
– Dropped (
First Annual Progress Report on European Contract Law and the Acquis Review, COM (2005) 456 final)
• Optional Instrument
– Must be referred to
– Does not help if vacuum
– Does not totally exclude application of national law

• A legislator’s guide or tool-box http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/cons_int/sa fe_shop/fair_bus_pract/cont_law/index_en
.htm
– Commn fundamental principles
– Definitions of key concepts
– Model rules
• Joint network on European Private Law http://www.copecl.org/

• Do the principles give a uniform regulation to the areas where governing laws give different regulations?

• Italian Law:
– Offer is binding until term expires
• English law:
– Offer is not binding until it has been accepted (or there is a consideration)
• PECL, art. 2:202:
– Offer is not binding until it has been accepted, but cannot be revoked if it contains a term
• PECL, art. 1:103:
– PECL can derogate from mandatory rules, if governing law allows it
– PECL cannot derogate from internationally mandatory rules
– Consideration?

• Italian law:
– Purchasers are entitled to delivery pro rata with each other
• English law:
– Purchasers are entitled to whole delivery
• PECL, art. 8:108:
– No specific regulation
• PECL, art. 1:106 (2):
– If regulation lacks, underlying principles shall be applied. If this is not possible, governing law shall be applied

• Do the Principles ensure a uniform application where they contain a regulation?

• Unidroit: Good faith is general principle
(1.7). To be understood as good faith in international trade
• PECL: General duty to act in good faith
(1:201). Autonomous interpretation
• Is termination upon immaterial breach against good faith?

• General principle?
• Generally acknowledged trade usage?
• Contract practice
• www.tldb.net
:
– Good faith is general principle
• Awards (no specific standard)
• CISG (no good faith as duty between parties)
• …
• UNIDROIT Principles and PECL

• As an integral part of the contract, if they have been incorporated by the parties
– Not applicable if contrast with mandatory governing law (art. 1.4)
• As an expression of trade uses, if they have not been incorporated
– To corroborate governing law
– Rarely as an independent source of law

• Comparative law as a tool towards unification?
– Unification is not exhaustive
– Even unified wording is interpreted in light of interpreter’s own legal background
• Different legal systems will continue to survive long after unification (if any)