Oregon Reading First
Elements of Effective
Reading Instruction
Deborah C. Simmons
University of Oregon
November 12, 2002
1
Effective Reading Instruction
Materials Developed by
Sharon Vaughn, Team Leader
Pam Bell Morris, Author
Martha Smith, Author
Jeanne Wanzek
Shirley Dickson
Elana Wakeman, Graphics
Marie Elena Arguelles
Isabel Beck
Jan Dole
Barbara Foorman
Alice Furry
Dauna Howerton
Jean Osborn
Timothy Shanahan
Deborah Simmons
Josefina Tinajero
The University of Texas
at Austin,
College of Education,
Texas Center for Reading
and Language Arts
University of Miami
University of Pittsburgh
University of Utah
The University of Texas Health Science Center
Sacramento County Office of Education
New Mexico State Department of Education
Consultant
University of Illinois at Chicago
University of Oregon
The University of Texas—El Paso
2
Goal
All students will read at or
above grade level by the end
of Grade Three.
3
Quality in Education
“Quality is never an accident; it is
always the result of high intention,
sincere effort, intelligent direction,
and skillful execution; it represents
the wise choice of many
alternatives.”
Willa A. Foster
4
Effective Reading
Instruction
Introduction
Content (Big Ideas) of Effective Reading Instruction
Features of Effective Reading Instruction
Effective Reading Interventions
5
What We Know Now
• We have 34 years of converging scientific research
• We know how children learn to read, what factors
impede reading development, and which instructional
approaches provide the most benefit
• We can increase the odds that no child is left behind
if we utilize these research findings to inform
practices in our educational systems
• Reading discrepancies become more entrenched over
time
6
Trajectory of Reading
Development
7
The State of Research:
What We Know
to Put the Odds in
Children’s Favor
8
What We Have To Do
•
Implement systematic change based on
scientific research, not on ideology and
philosophy
•
Use scientific research to inform reading
instruction
•
Start with solid comprehensive programs
and increase intensity based on student
performance
9
Big Ideas in Beginning Reading
#1. Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate
sound in words.
#2. Alphabetic Principle: The ability to associate sounds with
letters and use these sounds to read words.
#3. Automaticity with the Code: The effortless, automatic
ability to read words in connected text.
#4. Vocabulary Development: The ability to understand
(receptive) and use (expressive) words to acquire and convey
meaning.
#5. Comprehension: The complex cognitive process involving
the intentional interaction between reader and text to extract
meaning.
10
Key Terminology
Effective Reading Instruction
Phonemic
Awareness
Phonics &
Word Study
Spelling &
Writing
Fluency
Text
Comprehension
Vocabulary
Effective
Reading
Interventions
Maximizing
Student
Learning
Grouping
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Big Idea #1: Phonemic Awareness: Beginning Readers
Must Develop an Awareness of the
Phonemic Properties of Language.
One of the most compelling and well-established
findings in the research on beginning reading is the
important relation between phonemic awareness and
reading acquisition.
Kameenui, E. J., Simmons, D. C., Baker, S., Chard, D. J., Dickson, S. V., Gunn, B.,
Smith, S. B., Sprick, M., & Lin, S-J. (1997). Effective strategies for teaching beginning
reading. In E. J. Kameenui, & D. W. Carnine (Eds.), Effective Teaching Strategies That
Accommodate Diverse Learners. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
12
Phonemic Awareness
What Students Need to Learn
• That spoken words consist
of individual sounds or
phonemes
• How words can be
segmented (pulled apart)
into sounds, and how these
sounds can be blended (put
back together) and
manipulated (added,
deleted, and substituted)
• How to use their phonemic
awareness to blend sounds
to read words and to
segment sounds in words to
spell them
How We Teach It
•
•
•
Provide explicit and systematic
instruction focusing on only
one or two phonemic
awareness skills, such as
segmenting and blending
Link sounds to letters as soon
as possible
Use systematic classroombased instructional
assessment to inform
instruction
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Assessing Your Knowledge of Phonemic Awareness
The following assessment was administered to 89 teachers whose
average teaching experience was 5 years. Teachers included general
education teachers, reading teachers, special education teachers,
classroom assistants, and graduate students.
Answer the following questions to assess your phonemic
awareness skills.
1. How many speech sounds are in the following words?
ox
king
straight
though
boil
thank
shout
precious
2. What is the third speech sound in each of the following words?
boyfriend
educate
squabble
stood
badger
(Learning To Read: Schoolings First Mission, 1995)
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Critical Features of
Effective PA
A critical component
but not the complete
reading program
Focus on 1 or 2 types
of PA
Teach in
small groups
Teach
explicitly &
systematically
Teach to
manipulate
sounds
with letters
15
Big Idea #2: Effective Beginning Readers Must Have
Insight into the Alphabetic Principle of
Reading.
Definitions:
Alphabetic Awareness: Knowledge of letters of the alphabet
coupled with the understanding that the alphabet represents the
sounds of spoken language and the correspondence of spoken
sounds to written language.
Alphabetic Understanding: Understanding that the left-to-right
spellings of printed words represent their phonemes from first to
last.
Phonological Recoding: Translation of letters to sounds to words
to gain lexical access to the word.
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Phonics and Word Study
What Students Need to Learn
• Accurate and rapid identification of
the letters of the alphabet
• The alphabetic principle (an
understanding that the sequence
of sounds or phonemes in a
spoken word are represented by
letters in a written word)
• Phonics elements (e.g., lettersound correspondences, spelling
patterns, syllables, and meaningful
word parts)
• How to apply phonics elements as
they read and write
How We Teach It
• Provide explicit, systematic phonics
instruction that teaches a set of
letter-sound relations
• Provide explicit instruction in
blending sounds to read words
• Include practice in reading texts that
are written for students to use their
phonics knowledge to decode and
read words
• Give substantial practice for children
to apply phonics as they spell words
• Use systematic classroom-based
instructional assessment to inform
instruction
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Critical Features of Effective Phonics Instruction
(NRP = 38 studies)
Need to blend sounds
together (decode)
and take spoken words
apart (PA).
Keep the
end in mind..
learn to apply
letter sounds to
daily reading.
Systematic, synthetic
programs most effective.
(Low ach. & low SES)
Not all children
need all...learn
to differentiate
Begin in
kindergarten!
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Sequence of Letter-Sound Correspondence
Introduction in 4 Commercial Kindergarten
(1990’s) Reading Programs (First 10)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
#1
m
p
d
s
f
b
l
t
z
k
#2
h
p
r
b
s
f
m
t
g
c
#3
m
c
p
l
d
h
m
b
k
t
#4
b
j
h
p
a
x
e
y
c
e
Publisher
19
Spelling and Writing
What Students Need to Learn
• How to remember and
reproduce exact letter patterns
(e.g., letter-sound
correspondences, spelling
patterns, syllables, and
meaningful word parts)
• How to segment sounds in
words to spell them
• How to notice reliable spelling
patterns and generalizations
• Rapid, accurate letter formation
• How to write for different
purposes and audiences in
various forms
How We Teach It
• Provide explicit and systematic
spelling instruction to reinforce and
extend students’ growing knowledge
about reading
• Provide opportunities for manipulating,
categorizing, and examining the
similarities and differences in words
• Provide daily opportunities to increase
writing accuracy and speed
• Model various types of writing and help
children to apply spelling and reading
knowledge in purposeful writing
• Integrate writing across the curriculum
• Use systematic classroom-based
instructional assessment to inform
instruction
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Research Evidence
• Spelling words as they sound enhances phonemic
awareness and letter knowledge and accelerates
the acquisition of conventional spelling
(National Research Council, 1998)
• Complementing regular opportunities for writing
with systematic spelling instruction enhances and
extends to both reading and writing growth
(Adams, 2001)
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Big Idea #3: Automaticity with the Code:
Beginning Readers Should be Able to
Relate Sounds & Symbols of the
Alphabetic Code Automatically
Definition:
The ability to translate letters-to-sounds-to-words ,
fluently, effortlessly. LaBerge and Samuels (1974)
described the fluent reader as “one whose decoding
processes are automatic, requiring no conscious
attention” (e.g., Juel, 1991, p. 760). Such capacity then
enables readers to allocate their attention to the
comprehension and meaning of text.
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Fluency
What Students Need to Learn
•
•
•
How to decode words (in
isolation and in connected
text)
How to automatically
recognize words (accurately
and quickly with little
attention or effort)
How to increase speed (or
rate) of reading while
maintaining accuracy
How We Teach It
• Provide opportunities for guided
oral repeated reading that
includes support and feedback
from teachers, peers, and/or
parents
• Match reading texts and
instruction to individual students
• Apply systematic classroombased instructional assessment
to monitor student progress in
both rate and accuracy
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Critical Features of Effective Fluency Instruction
Repeated Readings
Keep the
end in mind..
Fluency is only part
of the picture!
Corrective
Feedback
Not all
children need
all...learn to
differentiate
Relatively brief
sessions (15-30
minutes)
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Automaticity: What is it?
Automaticity is reading words with no noticeable effort.
It is having mastered word recognition skills to the point
of overlearning. Fundamental skills are so “automatic”
that they do not require conscious attention.
Examples
• shifting gears on a car
• playing a musical instrument
• playing a sport (serving a tennis ball)
25
Big Idea #4: Comprehension of Text
Definition: The complex cognitive process involving the
intentional interaction between reader and text
,
to extract meaning.
26
Text Comprehension
What Students Need to Learn
• How to read both narrative
and expository texts
• How to understand and
remember what they read
• How to relate their own
knowledge or experiences to
text
• How to use comprehension
strategies to improve their
comprehension
• How to communicate with
others about what they read
How We Teach It
• Explicitly explain, model, and teach
comprehension strategies, such as
previewing and summarizing text
• Provide comprehension instruction
before, during, and after reading
narrative and expository texts
• Promote thinking and extended
discourse by asking questions and
encouraging student questions and
discussions
• Provide extended opportunities for
English language learners to
participate
• Use systematic classroom-based
instructional assessment to inform
instruction
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Critical Features of Effective Comprehension
Instruction (203 studies reviewed)
Multiple opposed
to a single
strategy
Teaching students
to become strategic
takes time
.
Active
involvement of
students
Teaching
rather than
mentioning or
assessing
Seven categories
of strategies
provide evidence
of efficacy.
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Research Evidence
•
Instruction of comprehension strategies improves
reading comprehension of children with a wide
range of abilities
(National Reading Panel, 2000)
•
Many children require explicit word recognition
instruction integrated with rapid processing of
words, spelling skills, and strategies to improve
comprehension
(Fletcher & Lyon, 1998)
29
Big Idea #5: Vocabulary Knowledge
and Development
Definition: As a learner begins to read, reading
vocabulary is mapped onto the oral vocabulary
,
the learner brings to the task. (NRP, 4-15).
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Vocabulary
What Students Need to Learn
• The meanings for most of the
words in a text so they can
understand what they read
• How to apply a variety of
strategies to learn word
meanings
• How to make connections
between words and concepts
• How to accurately use “new”
words in oral and written
language
How We Teach It
• Provide opportunities for students to
receive direct, explicit instruction in
the meanings of words and in word
learning strategies
• Provide many opportunities for
students to read in and out of school
• Engage children in daily interactions
that promote using new vocabulary
in both oral and written language
• Enrich and expand the vocabulary
knowledge of English language
learners
• Actively involve students in making
connections between concepts and
words
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Critical Features of Effective Vocabulary
Instruction
Multiple Methods
Direct & Indirect
Preinstruction can have
significant effects on
learning
Assessment
should match
instruction
Repetition &
Multiple
Exposures to Words
In Varied Contexts
Promise of computer
technology
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Research Evidence
•
Knowledge of word meanings (vocabulary) is critical
to reading comprehension
(Learning First Alliance, 2000; National Reading Panel, 2000)
•
Words are typically learned from repeated
encounters, rather than from a single context or
encounter
(Beck & McKeown, 1991)
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Cautions
• Most children do NOT learn to read or spell
“naturally,” rather they learn from instruction
• Good word identification instruction does NOT
primarily rely on guessing words from context or
picture cues
• Instructional time spent on independent, silent
reading with minimal guidance or feedback has NOT
been confirmed by research to improve reading
fluency and overall reading achievement
34
Cautions
• Guided oral reading is NOT the same instructional
practice known as “Guided Reading”
• A little structure, a little rationale, and a little
instruction is NOT effective comprehension
instruction
• Explicit spelling instruction is NOT random and
does NOT consist of informal memorization of word
lists or repetitious copying of words
35
Features of Effective
Reading Instruction
Grouping
Maximizing
Student
Learning
36
Grouping

Alternate grouping formats (e.g., one-on-one, pairs,
small group, whole group) for different instructional
purposes and to meet students’ needs

Use small, same-ability groups, continually monitor
student progress, and regroup to reflect students’
knowledge and skills

When students experience difficulties, reteach the
knowledge and skills that have the highest impact on
learning to read
37
Maximizing Student
Learning
• Every minute counts!
• Actively engage children:
• Vary presentation, format, and ways students can
participate in instruction
• Use an appropriate level of instructional materials
• Adapt the pacing, content, and emphasis of instruction for
individuals and groups of children, including English
language learners and those having difficulty learning to
read
38
Research Evidence
•
Students with reading difficulties who are taught in
small groups learn more than students who are
instructed as a whole class
(National Reading Panel, 2000)
•
Students benefit from working in a variety of grouping
formats that change to reflect their knowledge, skills,
interests, and progress
(Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, Moody, & Schumm, 2000;
Lou et al., 1996)
•
Students in 1:1 instruction did not make significantly
higher gains than students in groups of 1:3
(Vaughn, Thompson, Kouzekanani, Bryant, & Dickson, 2001)
39
Effective Reading
Interventions
• Even with research-based core reading
instruction, some students have
difficulty learning to read and make
inadequate progress
• Struggling readers need more time and
additional, intensive instructional
interventions
40
Effective Reading
Interventions
What Struggling Readers
Need to Learn
• Knowledge and
skills that have the
highest impact on
learning to read
How We Teach Struggling Readers
• Group students into groups of 3-5 according to their
instructional needs
• Provide targeted instruction 3 to 5 times per week
• Assure additional instruction aligns with core
reading instruction
• Provide ongoing and systematic corrective feedback
to students
• Provide extended practice in the critical elements of
reading instruction based on students’ needs
• Increase time for word study and build fluency to
improve automatic word recognition and rate of
reading
• Use systematic classroom-based instructional
assessment to document student growth and inform
instruction
41
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Research Evidence
• Explicit, intensive instruction is an essential feature of
effective interventions for struggling readers, including
students with learning disabilities
(National Reading Panel, 2000)
• Well-designed intervention programs implemented by
highly qualified teachers can make a difference in helping
children learn to read
(Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, Moody, &
Schumm, 2000; Fletcher & Lyon, 1998)
42
Cautions
• Effective reading instruction is NOT adding one new
program after another to programs already in your
school without determining each one’s effectiveness
and efficacy based on research
• Contrary to the claims made by some of the “latest”
and “best” reading practices, a “balanced” approach to
reading is NOT 50% whole language and 50% phonics
43
Cautions
• Good reading instruction is NOT writing your own
curriculum
• Systematic and explicit reading instruction does
NOT inhibit creativity
• NOT every component of reading receives equal
emphasis at every stage of reading development
44
540
45
Making a Difference
“No time is as important or as fleeting
as a child’s early years of schooling.”
Neuman, 2001, p. 474
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