Mgmt 383
Chapter 6
Jobs and Job Analysis
2009
Overview: Approaches to Deal
with Jobs
• Workflow Analysis – ensuring that work is
effectively divided into jobs.
• Job Design – improving jobs for motivation or
efficiency.
• Teams – using group inputs when appropriate.
• Alternative Scheduling – improving jobs for
flexibility or retention.
• Job Analysis - systematically identifying what is
done in the job.
• Job Descriptions and Specifications – product of
JA identifying TDR & KSA.
Workflow Analysis
• The study of the manner in which work
(inputs, activities, and outputs) moves
through an organization.
Inputs
Activities
(a.k.a., Process)
Closed System
Outputs
Workflow Analysis
• Workflow Analysis often can be used to
identify redundancy or over-complexity in
the work process.
• Workflow Analysis may lead to job
redesign.
• Workflow Analysis may indicate job
obsolescence.
Re-engineering
• Workflow analysis enhances our
understanding of how work is currently
being done.
• Re-engineering initiates the needed
changes.
Business Process Re-Engineering
• Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) three
phased approach to improving product
development, customer service & service delivery:
I Re-think – how does current work and job
design affect customer satisfaction & service?
II Re-design – analyze the workflow, then redesign the process as necessary.
III Re-tool – look at the possibility of new
technology to improve productivity, service,
quality & customer satisfaction.
Job Design/Re-Design
• Job Design – organizing TDR into a
productive unit of work. Reasons for
systematic job design:
• Maximize performance
• Enhance job satisfaction
• Reduce adverse affects to physical and mental
health.
• Person/Job Fit – matching the characteristics
of applicants with the characteristic of the job.
• Discussed in detail in Chapter 8
Classic Job Design Approaches
• Job Enlargement – increasing the scope of
job tasks.
• Job Enrichment – increasing the scope and
depth of job tasks.
• Job Rotation – shifting individuals from
one job to another (usually to gain
experience)
Characteristics of Jobs
Hackman & Oldman’s Model of
Job Characteristics
• Skill Variety – level of different activities
required to perform the job (assembly line
v. law enforcement).
• Task Identity – the extent to which a the
job includes a whole identifiable unit of
work that results in a visible outcome
(assembly line v. Orange County Chopper).
Characteristics of Jobs
• Autonomy – the level of individual control
the individual exerts over the work and its
scheduling (assembly line v. law
enforcement).
• Task Significance – the impact that the job
has other people (assembly line v. hurricane
relief worker).
• Feedback – amount of information
individuals receive regarding work
outcomes.
Types Teams to Perform Work
• Special-Purpose Teams – formed to address
specific problems, improve work processes,
and enhance product/service quality (Quality
Circles)
• Self-Directed Work Teams (SDWT) –
composed of individuals who are assigned a
cluster of TDR to be performed and are
empowered to make decisions regarding work
assignments within the group.
• No formal supervisor is assigned to the team.
Types Teams to Perform Work
• Virtual Teams – composed of individuals
who perform team assigned tasks, but are not
geographically collocated.
• Members do not share physical proximity.
• Members are linked by telecommunications
technology.
Advantages & Disadvantages of
Teams
• Advantages
• Productivity can
increase.
• Cost savings on
supervisor.
• Disadvantages
• Performance measurement
is problematic.
• Compensating individual
members.
• Not all employees are
“group oriented.”
• Require problem-solving
training.
Alternative Scheduling
• Shift Work
• Morning day shift (8 am - 4 pm, e.g.)
• Evening shift (4 pm - 12 am, e.g.)
• Graveyard shift (12 am- 8 am, e.g.)
• Compressed Work Weeks
• 52% of U.S. would trade a day off per week for less pay.
• Flextime
• Core time
• Many jobs are not conducive to flextime.
• Job Sharing
• In Global Work Environments be aware of Scheduling
Differences.
• Tuesday 1pm Oxford = Wednesday 12am Hong Kong
Telework
• Telecommuting – workers work via the
Internet and computer technology for one or
more days per week
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Home
Client’s facility
Airport conference rooms
Shared offices (“office nomads”)
Telework
• Issues to be dealt with:
• How to monitor the work.
• How the use of company equipment will be
monitored (appropriate use issues).
• How to handle the expenses incurred in home
offices.
• How to track employee time.
• How to properly manage/supervise work time.
The Nature of Job Analysis
• Job Analysis - A systematic method of
gathering data about the content and human
requirements of a job and the context in
which it is performed.
• Three components:
• Job description
• Job Specification
• Performance Standard
Job description
• Identifies the tasks, duties and
responsibilities incumbent upon the
position.
• Tasks
• Duties
• Responsibilities
• Work Contexts
Job Specification
• Identifies the knowledge, skills, and
abilities (KSA) that a position incumbent
must possess in order to adequately perform
the job.
• An employee who lacked the prescribed
KSA, would not be able to successfully
accomplish the essential TDR associated
with the job.
Performance Standard
• Job analysis should identify the minimal
level of performance associated with the job
in question. Entry level competencies.
• Quantity expectations
• Quality expectations
• Behavioral expectations
• Timeliness expectations
Why Job Analysis is Important
to HRM
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Legal foundation for job-relatedness.
Basis for HR planning.
Foundation of performance appraisal.
Basis for recruiting & selections.
Benchmark for compensation systems.
Identifies training & development needs.
Why Job Analysis is Important
to HRM
• Determines appropriateness of
bargaining units.
• Identifies health, safety, and security
problems.
Task-Based Job Analysis
• Most common form of Job Analysis.
• Focuses primarily on the tasks, duties,
and responsibilities of a given job.
Competency-Based Job Analysis
• Focuses primarily on the knowledge, skills,
and abilities of a given job.
• Becoming increasingly popular because:
• It communicates valued behaviors within the
organization.
• Helps raise competency levels.
• Emphasizes people’s capabilities for enhancing
the organization’s competitive advantage.
Typical Behavioral Competencies
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Customer focus
Team orientation
Technical expertise
Results orientation
Communications
effectiveness
• Punctuality
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Leadership
Conflict resolution
Innovation
Adaptability
Decisiveness
Attention to detail
Job Analysis Approaches
(Methods)
• Observation
• Work sampling
• Job diary/log
• Interviewing
• Questionnaires
• Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
• Managerial Position Description
Questionnaire (MPDQ)
• Computerized Job Analysis
Observation
• Work Sampling
• Employee Diary (Job Log)
• Warning: Be aware of the “Hawthorne
Effect” when conducting your observations.
Interviews
• Decide on interview format
• Structured
• Specific questions asked of each candidate.
• What were your primary duties in your last job?
• What equipment did you use?
• Unstructured
• Open-ended questions.
• Tell me about your last job?
• Determine who is to be interviewed:
• Employee
• Supervisor
• Combination (recommended)
• May be used in conjunction with questionnaires.
Questionnaires
• Two types of questionnaire formats.
• Structured
• Unstructured
• They are less costly and data can be collected
more quickly than interviews.
Typical Data Collected by
Questionnaires
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What were the routine duties?
What were the special duties?
How much time was spent on these duties?
Who do you have to work with to do the duties?
What decisions do you regularly make?
What KSAs do you have to use?
What training is required?
What physical activities do you perform?
What are your working conditions?
Specialized Job Analysis
Questionnaires: Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ)
• A sophisticated questionnaire which uses a
Likert scale to evaluate work behaviors.
• Strengths: focuses on the elements that describe
behaviors (competencies) which are relevant to the
job rather than technical aspects of the work.
• Job elements are grouped into six divisions for
evaluation.
• The focus is on behaviors necessary to do the
work.
Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ)
• PAQ Dimensions:
• 1. Information Input - Where and how does
the worker get information to perform the job?
• 2. Mental Process - What levels of reasoning
does the job require?
• 3. Work Output - What physical activities
must be performed?
Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ)
• PAQ Dimensions cont’d:
• 4. Relationship with Others - What level of
interdependency does the job require?
• 5. Job Context - What are the working
conditions associated with the job?
• 6. Other - What other factors are relevant to the
job beyond the previous five dimensions?
Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ)
• Shortcomings of PAQ:
• PAQ is written at the college level.
• It can only be effectively administered by
an expert.
• It is very costly.
• It is very time consuming.
Computerized Job Analysis
• Actually these are computerized versions of
questionnaires.
• Once data is received the program produces job
descriptions, job specifications and (sometimes)
performance standards.
• CMQ (Common-Metric Questionnaire)
• Interpersonal dimension
• Decision making dimension
• Mechanical & physical activities dimension
• Work context dimension
Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
• Based on the Department of Labor’s
Dictionary of Occupational Titles. (actually
replaced by O*Net in 1991)
• Titles and general job descriptions for over
28,000 jobs.
• A good starting place for the general summary
component of job descriptions and
specifications.
Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
• Considerations
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Goals of the organization
What workers do to achieve those goals
The level and orientation of what workers do
Performance standards
Training content
Occupational Information Network
• The Occupational Information Network - O*Net
database takes the place of the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT) as the nation's primary
source of occupational information.
• O*NetTM OnLine at http://online.onetcenter.org/
• Find occupations using keywords or O*NET-SOC codes.
• Use a list of your skills to find matching O*NET-SOC
occupations.
• You can enter a code or title from the DOT to find
matching O*NET-SOC occupations
DPT Codes
Data
People
Things
0 - Synthesis
1 - Coordinate
2 - Analyze
3 - Compile
4 - Compute
5 - Copy
6 - Compare
0 - Mentor
1 - Negotiate
2 - Instruct
3 - Supervise
4 - Divert
5 - Persuade
6 - Speak/
Signal
7 - Serve
8 - Take
Instruction
0 - Setup
1 - Precision Work
2 - Operate/Control
3 - Drive Operate
4 - Manipulate
5 - Tend
6 - Feed
7 - Handle
Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
•090. 227. 010.
Occupational
Code:
Educational
DPT
Code
Order in
terms of other
job titles with
same DPT
25-1011.00 O*NET-SOC code
Job Description (the
Document) Components
Identification
Position Title:
Reporting relationship:
Department:
Pay Grade:
General Summary
Essential Functions and Duties
Job Specifications
Education requirements:
Expertise requirements:
Working conditions:
Disclaimers and Approvals
Job Description
Position Title: Computer Operator
Department: Data Systems Department
Reports to:
Manager of Data Systems Department
General Summary:
Computer operator oversees the operation of computer
hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are
used as efficiently as possible. Works with networks of
personal computers. Computer operators must
anticipate problems and take preventive action as well
as solve problems that occur during operations.
Essential Job Functions
Essential Functions and Duties
1. Controls the console of computer workstation while
entering data in packaged or developed software. (60%)
2. Works from operating instructions prepared by
programmers, users, or operations managers, computer
operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral
devices required to run a particular job.(15%)
3. Operates scanners and printers.(5%)
[Continued on next slide]
Essential Job Functions
Essential Functions and Duties Con’t:
4. Prepare printouts or other output for distribution to
computer users. (5%)
5. Loads the equipment with disks, and paper as
needed.(5%)
6. While the computer is running, monitors the control
console and respond to operating and computer
messages.(5%)
7. Performs other duties as directed. (5%)
[the general duty clause]
Job Description and
Specifications
Job Specifications:
1. Education, high school graduate or equivalent.
2. Experience with IBM® compatible personal
computer data entry.
3. Knowledge and skill in using Excel® spread
sheets.
4. Knowledge in operating laser jet printers.
5. Ability to take instructions and pay attention to
detail in data entry and maintaining log books.
Job Description and
Specifications
Disclaimer:
1. The company reserves the right to change the content
of this job as needed.
2. This job description in no way, implicitly nor
explicitly, contractually binds the company to a
permanent relationship with the employee.
Legal Standards for Job
Analysis
1. Job analysis must be performed on the
exact job for which the selection criteria
are used.
2. Job analysis must be in written form.
3. Job analysis must be able to describe the
job in question and its relevant
procedures.
4. Data must come from several up-to-date
sources.
Legal Standards for Job
Analysis
5. Data should have been collected by an expert
(either internal or external).
6. Tasks, duties, and responsibilities must be
clearly identified.
7. Amount of competency required at the entry
level must be clearly defined.
8. KSA must be shown to be essential for job
accomplishment.