Kidnapping
Hijacking
Taking hostages
Captivity
(Psychological aspects)
Štěpán Vymětal
Vyškov, Czech Republic 06/25/2009
Captivity of civilians as hostages
is an international crime!
Additional relevant crimes are:
 Terrorist attack
 Hijackning
 Kidnapping
 Stealing children
 Abduction
 Taking hostages
 Illegal restraint
 Blackmail/Extortion…
2
Who can become hostage?
Individual
Group of people
Organisation/community
Society (terrorism)
Offenders often demonstrate that government
is unable to help own citizens!
3
Types of Cases
Stealing of children (extortion of „rich“ parents,
conflict in family…)
Kidnap or taking adult hostages
(political or economical reason)
Taking hostages during unsuccessful criminal act
(bank/shop robbery, jail-break)
Escalation of domestic violence
Sectarian violence
Hijacking (plane, ship, bus, train, car)
Suicidal terrorism
4
Air France hijacking
 AF flight (220 passangers, 12 crew) was hijacked on 24 December
1994 by the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) at Algiers, where they
killed 3 passengers.
 The aircraft riched Maarseilles on Dec. 26.
 French special forces stormed and killed all 4 hijackers in 20-min.
gun battle.
 166 passengers and crew survived.
 One of the most successful anti-terorist operations in history.
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Offenders
• Psychopatic personality (often cold, felonious
motivation, absence of empathy)
• Mental ill (psychosis)
• Drug users
• Fanatics
• „Common“ criminals
• „Normal“ people in crisis
+ combinations
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Motivation
 Economical (ransom)
 Political or ideological
(army pullout, release of prisoners, independency)
 Escape way
 Revenge (self-destroing)
 Solving of crisis interpersonal situation
(stealing of children, rejected partner, divorce)
 Psychopatological (irrational/dark/incomprehensible)
 Mimicking behavior
+ combinations
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Feelings of hostage: stages
1) Impact (mental denial, feeling of unreality, then mental and
physical tense and anxiety)
2) Definition of situation and partial calm (interpretation of
situation, adjusting to „rules of game“, belief that everything
will be solved soon)
3) Disillusion (waiting, lack of information)
4) Resignation (mental exhaustion, resignation to fate, apathy)
5) Receiving of rescue (new impact/extrem stress, confused
reactions, ambivalence, high anxiety, flooding of emotions)
6) Acute Stress Reaction (variation in emotions, euphory,
depression, anxiety, irritation, sleep disturbances, flashbacks…)
7) Processing of traumatic experience (long term, specific
psychological support is often needed)
8
Captivity in Columbia
 Ingrid Betancourt a Colombian-French politician was
kidnapped by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of
Colombia (FARC) on Feb. 2002.
 She was rescued by Colombian security forces six and a
half years later on July 2008.
 Rescued along with 14 other hostages (incl. 3 Americans
and 11 Colombian policemen and soldiers)
 Experience of captivity in FARC camps
 Isolation, separation in jungle
 No one was harmed during the rescue!
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Experience
Strong emotional and/or physical reactions
can appear some time after traumatic event
People have different level of specific
resiliency and recovery (it depends on social
support, physical health, coping strategies,
trauma exposition…)
Acute Stress Reaction is vital reaction of
human being. No matter how strange or
insane it looks, it is a normal reaction to
abnormal situation!
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Many specific factors
Each kidnapping and captivity is specific.
Many factors play a role in coping:
- Number and kind of hostages
- Organisation and kind of offenders
- Motivation of crime, aims
- Time
- Life conditions
- Character of crisis negotiation and of the storm
- etc
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Experience of hostages

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

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Feeling of fear and total dependence on offender dominates
Loss of control over one's own life
Contact with persisting danger
Extreme stress situation
Deprivation of basic needs
Psychological and physical pressure, threats
Forced to suffer or to do things in contravention of one's own
personality, will and morality
 Facing up to violence, harassment, excruciation, degradation,
dehumanisation…
12
Munich massacre
 The Munich massacre occurred during the Summer
Olypics in West Germany, 1972.
 Members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken
hostage and eventually murdered by Black
September, a militant group with ties to Fatah
organization.
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 By the end of the ordeal, the terrorist group had
killed 11 Israeli athlets and coaches and
1 German police officer.
 Five of the eight members of Black September were
killed during an abortive rescue attempt.
 The three surviving terrorists were captured, and
were later released by West Germany following the
hijacking by Black September
of a Lufthansa airliner.
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Stockholm syndrom
• Stockholm syndrome is a specific emotional
response of hostages.
• The hostage shows positive feelings and signs of
loyalty to the hostage-taker, regardless of the
danger or risk in which they have been placed.
• It is possible reaction, not necessary!
• It can be based on unconcious process or rational
behavior.
• It is life protective stay, supported by negotiators.
15
Stockholm bank roberry
 The syndrome was named after the robbery of
Kreditbanken in Stockholm in 1973.
 4 hostages + 2 offenders, 6 days in strong-room.
 Victims became emotionally attached to their captors.
 Defended them after were freed.
16
1980
In one year (1980) 42 embassies and
diplomatic missions were seized worldwide
by terrorists and radicals:
22 ambassadors were taken hostage
5 embassies were destroyed
53 people were killed in embassy shoot-outs
(not include US embassy in Teheran)
17
Iran hostage crisis
 Was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the USA
 Group of Islamist students and militants took over the
American embassy in Teheran
 Motivation: support of the Iranian Revolution
 52 Americans were held hostage for 444 days
(Nov.1979 - Jan.1981)
 Main stressors: homesickness, boredom, confinement
„Forcing grown men to live together in a small space day
and night, month after month, is a form of slow torture“
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It was seen as a violance of a centuries-old
principle of international law granting
diplomats immunity from arrest and diplomatic
sovereignty in their embassies
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Iranian Embassy Siege
 On April 30th, 1980 the group of 6 armed Arab separatists stormed
the Iranian Embassy in London (political motivation).
 26 hostahes were taken (including one police constable and two
visiting journalists).
 5 hostages were released
 On day 6 the terrorists killed 1 hostage (press attaché) and threw his
body outside.
 News teams were camped outside the embassy.
 The siege was ended by British special forces. 19 hostages saved. 20
Lima Syndrom
Lima syndrome is a situation in which
abductors develop a sympathy for their
hostages. It is the inverse of the Stockholm
syndrom.
Syndrome was named after an abduction at the
Japanese Embassy in Lima, Peru in 1996.
Within a few days, the abductors had set free
most of the hostages, including the most
valuable ones, due to sympathy.
21
Japanese embassy hostage crisis
14 members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary
Movement took hostage more than 600 of highlevel diplomats, government and military
officials and business executive who were
attending a party at the official residence of
Japan´s ambassador.
The motivation was political.
 Most of the hostages were soon released.
72 were freed after 126 days by Special forces.
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Storm the residence
1 hostage, 2 commandos
and all 14 abductors died.
• All abductors were killed
23
Worst-case: Beslan
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Beslan massacre - Day 1
 September 1st, 2004, School no. 1, Beslan, North Ossetia, RF
 32 armed terrorists (muslim pro-Chechen rebels) took more
then 1200 people (about 800 were children)
 Hostages were concentrated in gym with explosive materials
 Male hostiges and women-terorists were executed
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Day 2
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15 small babies with 11 nursing women were released
About 5000 relatives waited close to school
Lack in negotiation
No food and wather for hostages, hot temperature in gym
some hostiges drank own urine, some children are unconscious
 Hostage-takers: stressed, sleep deprivated, under drugs,
unpredictable
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Day 3
 2 explosions in the gym + big fire + shooting
 A chaotic battle broke out
(many local civilians , local police, special forces, army involved)
 Terrorists used children as a shields
 Using of heavy weapons from special forces
 Chaotic rescue operation
 A few of ambulances…
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Fatalities and injures
 Official fatalities:
Hostages 334, Other people 10, Special forces 10+ Hostagetakers 31 (Total 385+)
 Official injuries:
Security forces 55, Others 728 (Total 783)
 Long term psychological impact to community!
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Prevention of kidnepping
Risk reduction
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Worldwide kidnappings
Kidnapping is a real and dangerous threat in many
countries.
The only guaranteed way to avoid kidnapping
is not to go to risky areas.
Since this is impractical for many travelers, the next
best thing is to be aware of the risks!
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Statistics 2006
Absolute number of
kidnappings
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
Mexico
Iraq
India
South Africa
Brazil
Pakistan
Ecuador
Venezuela
Colombia
Bangladesh
Nigeria
Haiti
Afganistan…
Estimated number of kidnaps
per capita of population
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Iraq
Mexico
The Chechen Republic
Ecuador
Brazil
Haiti
South Africa
Trinidad&Tobago
Colombia
India…
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First questions of a hostage:
1.Who are my kidnappers?
2.What do they want?
3.What is my value?
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Behavior of hostages must be
according to the type of
kidnapper/situation
Understand situation!
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1.Who are my kidnappers?
Types of kidnappers:
1.amateurs
2.professionals
3.mentally ill or pathological persons
4.political or religious fanatics
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2. What do they want?
 1) Amateurs and professionals => blackmail
 b) Mentally ill or pathological persons often
blackmail too, but it is hard to understand them
 c) Political or religious fanatics need to
impress => highest risk!
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3.What is my value?
 Amateurs and professionals need
hostages alive to blackmail
 Mentally ill or pathological persons
mostly need hostages alive too
 Political or religious fanatics need to
impress => mostly kill hostages
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General behavior of a hostage
 Watch the mood of the kidnappers
 Don’t provoke
 Cooperate
 Take a time
 Don’t panic
Tricks how to not panic: watch carefully any detail in the room, play chess in
your mind, remember all your teachers from the high school etc.
 In case of political or religious fanatics
try to escape
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Interrogation of a hostage
Know your ID number, have a copy in your email box.
Some tricks
 Watch carefully some details in the room
 Keep the right position of your body
 Control your gestures
 Drink anytime you can
 Reformulate the talks and questions
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How to survive kidnapping?
Kidnapping is a terrifying experience, but you
have personal resources for coping with the
situation.
Remember, you are only of value to them
alive, and they want to keep you that way.
The common hostage responses: fear, denial,
and withdrawal are all experienced in varying
degrees.
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Surviving kidnapping 1
The terrorists are nervous and unsure, easily
irritated, often irrational. It is a psychologically
traumatic moment for the hostage.
Violence may be used even if the hostage
remains passive, but resistance could result in
death. You may be blindfolded, drugged,
handled roughly, or even stuffed in the trunk of
a car.
Try to regain your composure as soon as
possible and to organize your thoughts.
(Being able to behave rationally increases your chances for
survival).
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Surviving kidnapping 2
The more time that passes, the better your
chances of being released alive.
If drugs are administered, do not resist.
(Their purpose will be to sedate you and make you more
manageable; these same drugs may actually help you to get
control of your emotions, which should be your immediate
goal. If conscious, follow your captors’ instructions).
If taken hostage, your best defense is passive
cooperation!
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Surviving Hijackings 1
Tips of U.S. Bureau of Diplomatic Security
Blend in with the other airline passengers.
Avoid eye contact with your captors.
 Remember there may be other hijackers
covertly mixed among the regular passengers.
Although captors may appear calm, they
cannot be trusted to behave reasonably or
rationally at all times.
Stay alert, but do not challenge them
physically or verbally.
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Surviving Hijackings 2
Comply with their instructions.
If interrogated, keep answers short and
limited to nonpolitical topics.
Carry a family photo; at some point you may
be able to appeal to captors' family feelings.
Minimize the importance of your job!
Give innocuous reasons for traveling.
Never admit to any accusations.
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Surviving Captivity
Try to establish some kind of rapport with
your captors. Family is a universal subject.
 Avoid political dialogues, but listen
attentively to their point of view.
If you know their language, listen and
observe; and if addressed, use it.
Maintain your dignity and self-respect at all
times.
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Plan on a lengthy stay, and determine to keep
track of the passage of time.
(Captors may attempt to confuse your sense of time by taking
your watch, keeping you in a windowless cell, or serving meals
at odd hours. However, you can approximate time by noting, for
example, changes in temperatures between night and day; the
frequency and intensity of outside noises—traffic, whistles,
birds; and by observing the alertness of guards. )
Manage your time by setting up schedules for
simple tasks, exercises, daydreaming,
housekeeping.
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Build relations with fellow captives and with
the terrorists.
If hostages are held apart, devise ways to
communicate with one another.
(Where hostages are moved back and forth, to bathrooms for
example, messages can be written and left. However, do not
jeopardize your safety or the safety or treatment of others if
attempting to communicate with fellow captives seems too
risky).
Maintain your physical and mental health; it is
critical to exercise body and mind.
(Eat food provided without complaint; keep up your strength.
Request medical treatment or special medicines if required).
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Establish exercise and relaxation programs.
(Exercise produces a healthy tiredness and gives you a sense of
accomplishment. If space is confined, do isometrics. Relaxation
reduces stress. Techniques include meditation, prayer,
daydreaming. Keep your mind active; read anything available.
Write, even if you are not allowed to retain your writings. If
materials are not available, mentally compose poetry or fiction,
try to recall Scripture, design a house, even “play“ chess or
tennis”.
Take note of the characteristics of your captors
and surroundings.
(Their habits, speech, contacts; exterior noises /typical of city or
country/; and other distinctive sounds. This information could
prove very valuable later).
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If selected for early release, consider it an
opportunity to help remaining hostages.
(Details you have observed on the terrorists and the general
situation can assist authorities with a rescue).
You can expect to be accused of working for
the government’s intelligence service, to be
interrogated extensively, and to lose weight.
You may be put in isolation; your captives may
try to disorient you. It is important that you
mentally maintain control.
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Avoidance of Capture or Escape
Efforts to avoid capture or to attempt escape have in most
cases been futile. The decision, however, is a personal one,
although it could affect fellow hostages by placing them in
jeopardy. Several other considerations should be weighed.
To have any chance of success, you should be
in excellent physical condition and mentally
prepared to react before the terrorists have
consolidated their position. This, also, is the
riskiest psychological time.
You would need to have a plan in mind, and
possibly have been trained in special driving
tactics or other survival skills.
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Consider the consequences of your escape
before attempting it
(If you are held in a country in which you would stand out
because of race or other physical characteristics, if you know
nothing of the language or your location, or if you are held in
a country where anti-American or anti-Western attitudes
prevail)
If you conclude that an escape attempt is
worthwhile, take terrorists by surprise and
you may make it.
(If their organization has a poor track record of hostage safety,
it may be worth the risk).
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Surviving Rescue operation
The termination of any terrorist incident is
extremely tense.
During an assault:
Remain calm and out of the way.
(Try to be far from windows and doors).
Make no sudden moves (-or take any action by which you
could be mistaken for a terrorist and risk being injured or killed. Even in a
voluntary release or surrender by the terrorists, tensions are charged and
tempers volatile).
Follow instructions precisely. Very precise instructions
will be given to the hostages, either by the captors or the police. You may
be asked to exit with hands in the air, and you may be searched by the
rescue team. You may experience rough treatment until you are identified
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and the situation has stabilized.
Keep in mind three facts about terrorism:
1. The overwhelming majority of victims have
been abducted from their vehicles on the
way to or from work.
2. A large number of people taken hostage
ignored the most basic security precautions.
3. Terrorist tactics are not static. As precautions
prove effective, they change their methods.
There is a brief “window of vulnerability”
while we learn to counter their new styles.
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Prevention
 Be prepared! Have actual risk information, use video
monitoring , alarms, lighting outside, detect following…
 Routine kills! Do not settle into a routine. Vary times
and routes to and from work or social engagements.
 Assimilate to local population. Use cultural „mimic
colouring“ (clothing, beard, hair style, sunburn,
behaviour, habits).
 Do not inform about your profession and family
unknown people. Do not introduce by your name using
phone.
Be prepared, be unpredictible, be unconspicuous!!!
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Avoid going out alone. Remember, there is
safety in numbers. When traveling long
distances by automobile, go in a convoy.
 Avoid back country roads and dangerous
areas of the city.
A privately owned car generally offers the best
security. Avoid luxury or ostentatious cars.
Keep your automobile in good repair and the
gas tank at least half full.
Driving in the center lane of a multiple lane
highway makes it difficult for the car to be
forced off the road.
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About lector
•
•
•
•
•
Crisis, Disaster and trauma psychologist
Interior Ministry, head of psychology section
Foreign Ministry, lector
Czech Airlines, coordinator of psychological crisis team
Czech Police, coordinator of posttraumatic intervention team
Contact: 00420-607958920, stepan.vymetal@email.cz
Tragedies and Journalists – web brochre:
http://aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/udalosti/prirucky/novinari/nn_en.pdf
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