University of Indianapolis
Police Administration
CRIM 340-50
Segment 1
Thomas N. Davidson, J.D.
www.thinblueline.ws
Download and print the syllabus.
Means of Assessment-Midterm
One 5 to 8 page research paper on a topic
related to police administration of the
student’s choice. The paper is due October
8, 2009 at the beginning of class. This paper
will comprise your midterm score. 50 points
towards semester grade. One inch margins
all around. Title page required (not included
in page count.). Use at least 3 sources. Use
the APA citation and reference style. Double
space, indent paragraphs 5 spaces (no
double-double spacing), use 12 point font.
Reference page is required.
Ideas for the Midterm Paper
• Define community policing, what are the pros and cons
with community policing.
• Describe the use of DUI checkpoints. Are they legal.?
Are they effective?
• Define crime analysis. Give examples of different types
and how they are used.
• Define the exclusionary rule. Explain the rationale for it.
Should it be discarded in favor of something more like
the English rule?
• Explain the concepts of vertical and horizontal
differentiation as applied to organizational design with
police departments.
Ideas for the Midterm Paper
• Describe the war on drugs. When did it begin?
How is it going? Has it been lost?
• Is profiling legal, ethical, effective? Describe
what profiling is and how the police use it.
• What are the major components of total quality
leadership and how do they relate to police
departments?
• Explain the Johari Window & how different
scenarios in each arena affect the management
of police departments.
Ideas for the Midterm Paper
• Discuss barriers to communication and how it
effects the decision making process,
professional relationships, and crisis
intervention.
• Discuss affirmative action, reverse discrimination
and assignments or promotions based on
diversity.
• Discuss measures to identify, prevent, interdict,
and remedy police misconduct.
• Discuss police stress, suicide, and measures to
identity, prevent, interdict and remedy this issue.
Ideas for the Midterm Paper
• What are the factors that led to police unionizing? Is it a
good or bad thing? Should police be allowed to strike?
• How can police reduce their liability with respect to high
speed chases?
• Explain 42 USC § 1983 violation of civil rights. How can
police departments reduce their liability.
• Discuss 1st amendment issues of free speech and
freedom of religion as it relates to police work (Can
police departments take action against officers who
refuse work based on religious beliefs? What about if
officers openly criticize their superiors?
Ideas for the Midterm Paper
• Should police officers be held to higher standard
than other citizens when sentenced for crimes or
disciplined? Argue both sides, give examples.
• Discuss the synoptic planning approach and
describe methods of selecting a preferred
course of action.
• Discuss forfeiture, donations, fund-raising, user
fees, special police taxes, special fines as a way
of funding police operations. Ethical issues?
• Discuss the use of force continuum, Garner v.
Tennessee and the use of less than lethal
weapons.
Means of Assessment-Final
Final exam is December 3, 2009. The exam
counts 50 points towards semester grade. The
exam is an open note & open book exam. You
can expect that the exam will include essay,
multiple choice, short answer and true/false
questions. Answer questions on the exams with
respect to how the subject matter was covered
in class or in the text.
Grading Scale
95-100 = A
90-94 = A87-89 = B+
83-86 = B
80-82 = B-
77-79 = C+
73-76 = C
70-72 = C67-69 = D+
63-66 = D
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scroll down and click on the FBI crest
Click file, print, drop down box Print what,
select outline view
Freedom from crime is not free.
The degree to which a society achieves
public order depends in part on the price
society is willing to pay to obtain it.
• Resources committed to crime
suppressions, detection, and prevention.
• The extent to which people are willing to
accept a reduction in civil liberties.
APA Style
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Concise & Bias-Free
Orderly Presentation of Ideas.
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Punctuation marks.
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Transitional words.
(then, next, after, while)
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Cause-effect links.
(therefore, consequently, as a result)
Smoothness of Expression.
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Use of verb tenses.
Noun-stings. (tangled strings of several nouns
“Early
childhood thought disorder misdiagnosis” “Misdiagnosis of
thought disorders in early childhood”)
Concise & Bias-Free
Economy of Expression.
• First person. (“I wrote the report” rather than “This reporter
wrote the report”)
• Active Voice. (“I wrote the report” rather than “The report was
written by me”)
• Use short words, short sentences, avoid jargon,
and redundancy.
Precision and Clarity.
Concrete words.
Avoid connotative language.
Plagiarism
The process of copying another person's
idea or written work and claiming it as
original; or
A piece of written work or an idea that
somebody has copied and claimed as his
or her own.
Source: Encarta Dictionary North America
When do you need to use reference
citations?
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Whenever you use publications by someone
else.
1. Paraphrased use (Davidson, 2007).
2. Quotation (Davidson, 2007, p. 276).
• Cite personal interviews or communications in
text only (T.N. Davidson, personal
communication, November 5, 2007).
• Remember, if the data you are using is not
commonly known, it probably requires a
reference citation.
Format
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8 ½ x 11 in.
White paper.
Every component double-spaced.
One inch margins all around.
Title page. (Your name, instructor, course name, & date.)
Each paragraph longer than a single sentence,
but not too long.
• Explain necessary abbreviations.
• Citations included where necessary.
Format
Reference page.
• Any source listed on reference page must
be cited in the body of the paper.
• Spell journal titles out in full.
• List in alphabetical order.
• Double-space all entries.
• Hanging indent format.
Reference Page: Example Reference Format
(Every line is double spaced.)
American Psychological Association. (2003).
Electronic references. Retrieved January
30, 2007 from
http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
Harris, Muriel. (2003). Prentice Hall
reference guide to grammar and usage
(5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Sample Title Page
(Center text on paper.)
Title of paper
Student’s name
Course #
Submission date
Header
Sample Page Layout
Indent 5 spaces
Page #
Double-space
throughout
paper
12 Point Font
One inch
margins
Do NOT right
justify
Subsequent cite in same P
do not include year.
Citations
First cite in P: Author’s
name & Date of publication
Place period after cite
Sample Reference Page
Hanging
indents
Double-spaced
Government v. Liberty Tension
In a free society there is a constant tension
between its government’s legitimate police
function and its citizens’ liberty interests. It
has and will be with us and it will never go
away. It is a source of conflict that must
be understood by both the police and the
population in order for it to be controlled.
Theories of Police Development
• Disorder-control: Need to suppress mob
rule and violence.
• Crime-control: Threats to public order
create a climate of fear.
• Class-control: Police reinforce class-based
economic exploitation. Labor provided the
fuel for capitalism, yet were perceived as
dangerous.
A brief guide to police history
Ancient Era 3000BC to 400AD
• Kin policing derived from the power and
authority of kinship systems & rule by elders.
The family of the offended individual was
expected to assume responsibility for justice by
punishing the offender.
• Egyptian rulers used elite units of the military as
bodyguards.
• In Mesopotamia, captured Nubian slaves were
used as guards.
A brief guide to police history
• The Greeks had a sort of highway patrol
and trials.
• The Hebrews developed the Mosaic Law.
• The first organized police department is
believed to be the Roman vigiles around
27 BC.
A brief guide to police history
Middle Ages 400 A.D. – 1600 A.D.
• Either no system or:
• Gendarme System in France were agents
of the crown.
• Pledge System in England by Alfred the
Great; each person is pledged to perform
some kind of police work unless excused
by the shire-reeve.
A brief guide to police history
Tithing system 1066 A.D. (frankpledge)
• All the men over 12 in a village formed a
tithing.
• 10 tithings organized into a hundred
supervised by a constable.
• 10 hundreds were organized into a shire
supervised by the shire-reeve.
A brief guide to police history
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Statute of Winchester of 1285
Required every able-bodied man to possess a
weapon (assize of arms).
Everyone in the countryside accountable in
assisting with apprehension of criminals (hue
and cry system).
Established a watch and ward night patrol to
augment daytime constables (watch system).
Formalized the parish constable system
(frankpledge system).
A brief guide to police history
Colonial Era 1600 A.D. – 1800 A.D.
• Adopted the watch system.
• Shire-reeves became sheriffs.
• Towns had constables who organized
watchmen.
Like the English system, the American system was
characterized by:
1. Limited authority causing legitimacy problems.
2. Decentralization. Local control & varation.
3. Fragmentation. One hand doesn’t know . . .
A brief guide to police history
English Police Reform
• Bow Street Runners (1st detectives 1750).
• Creation of the 1st professional police
department in 1829. Created by Sir
Robert Peel, the officers were called
Bobbies or Peelers.
A brief guide to police history
Sir Robert Peel
Known as the father of modern policing
A brief guide to police history
Peel established the Metropolitan Police Force for London
based at Scotland Yard 1829. The 1,000 constables
employed were affectionately nicknamed 'Bobbies' or,
somewhat less affectionately, 'Peelers.' Although at first
unpopular, they proved very successful in cutting crime
in London, and by 1835 all cities in the UK were being
directed to form their own police forces. Known as the
father of modern policing, Robert Peel developed the
Peelain Principles which defined the ethical
requirements police officers must follow in order to be
effective. His most memorable principle was, "the police
are the public, and the public are the police."
The 9 Peelian Principles 1-5
1. The basic mission for which the police exist is to prevent
crime and disorder.
2. The ability of the police to perform their duties is
dependent upon public approval of police actions.
3. Police must secure the willing co-operation of the public
in voluntary observance of the law to be able to secure
and maintain the respect of the public.
4. The degree of co-operation of the public that can be
secured diminishes proportionately to the necessity of
the use of physical force.
5. Police seek and preserve public favour not by catering to
public opinion but by constantly demonstrating absolute
impartial service to the law.
The 9 Peelian Principles 6-9
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Police use physical force to the extent necessary to
secure observance of the law or to restore order only
when the exercise of persuasion, advice and warning
is found to be insufficient.
Police, at all times, should maintain a relationship with
the public that gives reality to the historic tradition that
the police are the public and the public are the police;
the police being only members of the public who are
paid to give full-time attention to duties which are
incumbent on every citizen in the interests of
community welfare and existence.
Police should always direct their action strictly towards
their functions and never appear to usurp the powers
of the judiciary.
The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime
and disorder, not the visible evidence of police action
in dealing with it.
A brief guide to police history
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Spoils Era 1800 A.D. – 1900 A.D.
Large scale social changes in America.
Politicians control the police.
Riot control function because of race and ethnic riots
between 1835-1890s.
1845 New York City paid professional policing.
Pre civil war Paddy-Roller slave catchers.
1911 motorized.
1845 saw beginning of state and federal agencies:
Texas rangers, Border Patrol, IRS.
Pendleton Act of 1883 sought to end the spoils system in
the federal government.
A brief guide to police history
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Progressive Era 1900 A.D. – 1920 A.D.
Spoils system replaced by civil service.
1902 formation of IACP.
Attempts to foster professionalism.
Chief Vollmer of Berkeley champions
professionalism 1918.
FOP created in 1915.
A brief guide to police history
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Gangster Era 1920 A.D. – 1950 A.D.
18th Amendment (Prohibition) 1919.
Great depression 1930s.
Vice control.
Wave of bank robberies, kidnappings,
bootlegging.
Rise of the “G-men.”
Elliot Ness-Prohibition Bureau.
J. Edgar Hoover-FBI.
Elliot Ness
J. Edgar Hoover
A brief guide to police history
August Vollmer
August Vollmer
Vollmer earned the reputation as the "father of modern law
enforcement.” He was the first chief to require that police
officers attain college degrees, and persuaded the
University of California to teach criminal justice. In 1916,
UC-Berkeley established a criminal justice program,
headed by Vollmer. Vollmer was also the first police
chief to create a motorized force, placing officers on
motorcycles, and in cars so that they could patrol a
broader area with greater efficiency. Radios were
included in patrol cars. He was also the first to use the lie
detector, developed at the University of California, in
police work. Vollmer supported programs to assist
disadvantaged children, and was often criticized for his
leniency towards petty offenders such as drunks and
loiterers. He also encouraged the training and
employment of female and African American police
officers.
Wickersham Report
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The Wickersham Commission was established in May of 1929
when President Herbert Hoover appointed George W. Wickersham
(1858-1936) to head the National Committee on Law Observation
and Enforcement, popularly called the Wickersham Commission.
The Commission was an 11-member group charged with
identifying the causes of criminal activity and to make
recommendations for appropriate public policy. The emphasis was
almost entirely on the widespread violations of national alcohol
prohibition.
The report was almost entirely written by Vollmer. Among other
things the report included various ideas for police reform including:
Personnel standards (for cause removal only).
Communications and records.
Separate units for crimes of vice and juveniles.
State information bureaus.
Training academies.
A brief guide to police history
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Revolutionary ERA 1960 A.D. – 1970 A.D.
Civil rights struggle.
Assassinations, mass & serial murders.
100 officers killed a year ILOD. 300 citizens a
year killed by police.
The process of Incorporation.
Miranda.
The exclusionary rule.
Law enforcement Assistance Administration
(LEAA) & Law enforcement education prograam
(LEEP)
A brief guide to police history
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Current Era 1970 A.D – Present
Police community relations.
Diversity in police departments.
MBO.
Knapp Commission
War on drugs.
War on terror.
Technology.
Some Important Dates in American Police History
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1631 Boston night watch.
Full-time paid police in Boston.
9/24/1789 1st US Marshall.
5/17/1792 1st US officer KILOD
Isaac Smith of NYC SO.
1835 Texas Rangers.
1865 US Secret Service.
11/11/1871 1st AfricanAmerican KILOD.
1878-1881 Billy the Kid killed 6
lawmen.
10/26/1881 shoot out at OK
coral involving lawman Wyatt
Earp.
• 1902 fingerprinting used in US.
• 07/24/1916 1st female officer
KILOD.
• 11/24/1917: 9 officers killed in
Milwaukee after bomb
explodes.
• 1924 Hoover takes over at FBI.
• 1929 Ness put in charge of the
Untouchables.
• 1932-1934 Bonnie & Clyde kill
10 LEOs.
• 1974: 275 LEOs KILOD.
• 1974 Soft body armor.
• 1988 DNA used in America.
• 9/11 72 LEOs KILOD.
Contemporary Law Enforcement
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18,000 different agencies ( UK with ¼ of US
population has 43 agencies).
Fragmented (UK all agencies administered by
the Home Office).
Federal agencies.
State agencies.
County sheriffs.
Local police agencies.
Special police.
Contemporary Law Enforcement
• Nationally, sworn officers account for 69.5
percent of PD personnel.
• Nationally, police to population ratio rural
and city is: 2.4 per 1000.
• Indiana has 146 local PDs.
Contemporary Law Enforcement
• In the U.S. in 2005, the average number of full-time law
enforcement employees in cities (both sworn officers and
civilian) was 3.0 per 1,000 inhabitants.
• Within cities in the Northeast, the rate of full-time law
enforcement employees per 1,000 inhabitants was 3.5.
• Within cities in the South, the rate of full-time law
enforcement employees per 1,000 inhabitants was 3.4.
• Within cities in the Midwest, the rate of full-time law
enforcement employees per 1,000 inhabitants was 2.7.
• Within cities in the West, the rate of full-time law
enforcement employees per 1,000 inhabitants was 2.4.
The Thin Blue Line
The "thin blue line" is the collective group of law
enforcement officers (LEO), correctional officers,
prosecutors and others in the criminal justice
system that separate and protect society from
anarchy.
Community Policing
• 1970 through the 80’s police generally
used the professional model.
• Patrol from cars, aloof, impartial,
everybody gets the same treatmetn.
• Rising crime rates
• Broken windows policing emerged
Broken Windows Policing
Clean up the community, people will take
pride, criminals will be displaced.
Community Policing
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Commitment to crime prevention
Public scrutiny of police
Accountability of police action to public
Customized police service
Community organization
Community Policing
• Number of police does not lower crime rate or
solve more crimes.
• Random patrol neither lowers crime or increases
chances of catching criminals.
• 2 person patrol cars are not safer and do not
lower crime rates.
• Saturation patrols do not lower crime it displaces
it.
• Improving response time has little effect in
solving crime.
Response Times
Police cannot control:
1. The time it takes from when the crime
occurs to when it is discovered;
2. The time it takes from when it is
discovered to when it is reported to
police
Crime Prevention& Deterrence
Crime Prevention
Crime Deterrence
Likelihood
Desire
Ability
Desire
of being
caught
Opportunity
Gravity of harm if caught
Community Policing
Scanning
Analysis
Response
Assessment
Each problem will likely not
only involves crime, but a
wider community social issue.
Outcomes v. Outputs
• Outputs are work product like the number
of traffic tickets issued, crashes
investigated, or the number of criminals
arrested.
• Outcomes are the results of outputs.
Crime and accident rates for example.
Crime Analysis
• Crime Specific Analysis-pattern of
reported crime.
• Link analysis-Associations among people.
• Telephone Toll Analysis.
• Visual Investigative Analysis (VIA) charting
key criminal events in chronological order.
• Case Analysis and Management Systemcomputerized to clarify relationships &
calculate probability of associations.
Technology
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Geographical Information Systems-mapping.
Global Positioning Systems-locating.
Artificial Intelligence Systems.
Natural language applications.
Robotic applications.
Computer science applications (brains).
Cognitive science applications (decisionmaking).
Problems with community policing
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Lack of definition.
Lack of community.
Role confusion and low morale.
Expensive.
Lack of credible evaluation.
Conflict with accreditation standards.
External Influences
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Politics
Economy
Competing agencies
Community groups
Governments: federal, state, & local
Unions and associations
Review boards
Judicial review
Incorporation
• Prior to the 60’s the Bill of Rights restricted
and regulated only the federal
government.
• Through a series of cases in the 60’s, the
Warren Court began incorporating USC
protections to the states through the due
process clause of the 14th Amendment.
14th Amendment
Section. 1. All persons born or naturalized in the
United States and subject to the jurisdiction
thereof, are citizens of the United States and of
the State wherein they reside. No State shall
make or enforce any law which shall abridge the
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United
States; nor shall any State deprive any person of
life, liberty, or property, without due process of
law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction
the equal protection of the laws.
Due Process
• Procedural Due Process can be boiled
down to notice of the charges and an
opportunity to be heard.
• Substantive Due Process means the
procedures must be in content and
conducted “fairly.”
Criminal Procedure-Sources of Law
Constitutions
1. Federal
2. States
Legislated
1. Federal
2. State
3. Local
Common law (Case law)
1. Federal
2. State
Administrative law
Criminal Procedure-Separation of Powers
• Judicial – interprete laws
• Executive – execute and enforce laws
• Legislative – create and pass laws
Criminal Procedure- Administrative Law
• Congress or legislature delegates
authority to the administrative agency
through an enabling statute.
• Laws must be tailored to the mission of the
agency.
• Must be properly promulgated.
Criminal Procedure - Warrant
Requirement
• The right of the people to be secure in their
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not
be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but
upon probable cause, supported by Oath or
affirmation, and particularly describing the place
to be searched, and the persons or things to be
seized .
• Any search conducted without a warrant is per
se illegal unless an exception exists.
Criminal Procedure – Exceptions to the
Warrant Requirement
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Search incident to a lawful, custodial arrest
Voluntary consent and waiver
Search of a vehicle with probable cause
Inventory after lawful impoundment of a vehicle
Stop and frisk searches (Investigatory Detention)
Plain view, smell & touch
Open fields
Exigent circumstances - hot pursuit
Abandoned property
Protective sweep
Criminal Procedure – 5th Amendment
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or
indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the
land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual
service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any
person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in
jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process
of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
without just compensation.
Criminal Procedure – Miranda Rule
• Custodial Interrogation.
• The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be
clearly informed that he or she has the right to remain
silent, and that anything the person says may be used
against that person in court; the person must be clearly
informed that he or she has the right to consult with an
attorney and to have that attorney present during
questioning, and that, if he or she is indigent, an attorney
will be provided at no cost to represent him or her.
Additionally, the officer must ask whether the person
understands their right and will consent to questioning.
Criminal Procedure – Exclusionary Rule
•
Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383
(1914). First used in federal case.
• Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961) Made
applicable to the states.
Rationale
1. Dirty Hands
2. Deterrence
3. Way to enforce constitution
Criminal Procedure – Double Jeopardy
Clause of the 5th Amendment
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or
indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the
land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual
service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any
person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in
jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be
deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process
of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
without just compensation.
Double Jeopardy
• Prohibition from being tried twice for
crimes arising out of the same set of facts.
• Prohibition from increasing a penalty expost facto.
• Dual sovereignty.
Criminal Procedure – Presumption of
Innocence & Bail
8th Amendment: Excessive bail shall not be
required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
1. Guarantee defendant’s appearance.
2. Public safety.
Presumed innocent means that the defendant is
not judged guilty of a crime and punished
unless convicted BRD or he pleads guilty to it
in the criminal courts.
Criminal Procedure – Burden of Proof
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Beyond a reasonable doubt.
Clear and convincing evidence.
Preponderance of the evidence.
Probable cause.
Articulable suspicion.
Good faith belief.
Criminal Procedure - Evidence
• There are four traditional types of evidence: real
evidence (tangible things like a weapon),
demonstrative (a model or photograph),
documentary (a writing or other document), and
testimonial (testimony by witnesses).
• Circumstantial Evidence - Testimony not based
on actual personal knowledge or observation of
the facts in controversy, but of other facts from
which deductions are drawn, showing indirectly
the facts to be proved.
Police Ethics and Misconduct
Police Ethical Models
1. Law.
2. Code of conduct.
3. Rules, regulations, & standard operating
procedures.
Police Ethics and Misconduct
• Police have a property interest in their
jobs.
• Cannot be terminated or disciplined
without due process.
Police Ethics and Misconduct
Internal Investigation
1. Founded
2. Unfounded
3. Exonerated
4. Not determined.
We will discuss police misconduct and
liability in more detail later in the course.
News Media
The First Amendment of the federal constitution
provides the news media and all citizens certain
rights of free speech and press. The media,
however, does not have an unlimited right to
engage in the collection of news material.
“Newsmen have no constitutional right of special
access to the scenes of crime or disaster when
the general public is excluded . . .” Brandzburg
v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665, 684-685 (1972).
However, once the news media has acquired
information from a critical incident or other
source, it will be difficult to prevent its
publication. Bantam Books, Inc. v. Sullivan, 372
U.S. 58 (1963).
Prosecutors
• Federal: US Attorney may bring a charge
only through a GJ Indictment.
• State: Prosecutor may bring a charge
either by filing an Information or by GJ
Indictment.
• Prosecutor has absolute discretion on
whether to bring a charge, but must have
PC if he decides to bring a charge.
Terrorism
The FBI defines terrorism as the unlawful use of
force or violence against persons or property to
intimidate or coerce a government, civilian
population, or any segment thereof in
furtherance of political or social goals. It is
widely acknowledged that a variety of definitions
exist for terrorism. Most definitions contain the
following elements: 1) use of violence or threat
of violence, 2) coercion of a target group; 3)
achievement of goals of a political, a religious, or
an ideological nature.
Domestic Right Wing Terrorism
Generally, there are four elements necessary to
precipitate violence by domestic “hate” groups:
1) the group is based on a false premise, such
as there is no hope for the future; 2) the group
must have a charismatic leader; 3) the leader
will pin-point all “trouble” as being caused by a
particular group, such as the Jewish society;
and, 4) some event to rally and excite the group,
such as a confrontation between police and
some other right-wing extremist.
Psychological Hostage Takers
• Suicidal personality. Does not care if he/she is killed,
and may cause someone else to fulfill his death wish.
• Vengeance Seeker. Driven by an irrational purpose. His
hostage taking scheme is normally well-planned.
Incidents involving this type of hostage taker pose a high
probability that it will require a police assault to resolve.
The vengeance seeker often falls in the category of
“homicide to be”.
• Disturbed individual. This person’s hostage taking
motives and methods may be illogical and improvised.
There are two common psychotic disorders associated
with many hostage takers: 1) paranoid schizophrenia,
and 2) manic-depressive Illness.
Criminal Hostage Takers
• Cornered perpetrator. A bank robbery suspect, for
example, unexpectedly is confronted by the police,
retreats back into the bank, and has no escape.
• Aggrieved Inmate(s). These incidents may be well
planned or spontaneous.
• Extortionist. The kidnapper is usually motivated by
greed. The kidnapper’s location is usually not known to
police, he usually is not contained, and usually only
communicates with the victim’s family, even if the police
are present. Police negotiators seldom talk to the
kidnappers directly because they usually require the
family to not call the police as a prerequisite for not
killing the kidnap victim.
Political Hostage Takers
• Social protester. This person is likely to be a
young educated person. This hostage taker
wants to eliminate social injustice. Normally, this
hostage taker will take the hostage in a group at
the location of the unwanted entity or event or
where the protest is most visible.
• Fanatic. This person believes in a cause and is
usually willing to kill and die for the cause. This
hostage taker can be characterized as an
Ideological Zealot.
Political Hostage Takers
• Terrorist Extremist. Hostage taking by terrorist groups
are well planned, probably brutal, and the hostage takers
are willing to kill and die. The intent of political hostage
takers is to get as much publicity as possible for their
cause. The incidents are well planned and organized.
In political terrorism, the hostage takers attempt to
demonstrate to the public that the government is unable
to protect its own citizens. Often the demands of the
hostage takers go beyond the authority of local police. It
is the hope of the terrorists, who are virtually guaranteed
of media coverage, that after several hostage incidents,
that the government will overreact and become
excessively restrictive with its own citizens, thus causing
civil discontent.
School Violence
Major Incidents of School Violence
Olivehurst, California 5/1/92
Grayson, Kentucky 1/18/93
Moses Lake, Washington 2/2/96
Bethel, Alaska 2/19/97
Pearl, Mississippi 10/1/97
Paducah, Kentucky 12/1/97
Jonesboro, Arkansas 3/24/98
Edinboro, Pennsylvania 4/24/98
Fayetteville, Tennessee 5/19/98
Springfield, Oklahoma 5/21/98
Littleton, Colorado 4/20/99
Nickel Mines, Pennsylvania 10/2/06
Tacoma, Washington 1/3/07
School Violence
• “It’s not your father’s high school” was the reply when a young
man was asked why there seems to be more violence in schools
today. He explained that his high school was large, there was very
little individual attention (unless you were popular, a scholar or an
athlete) from staff, there was a double standard and open, tolerated
prejudice against those who were somehow “different”. “One group
picks on another, no one will help you, sometimes your thoughts
turn to revenge and how easy it would be to get even.” “Don’t get
me wrong, I don’t think what they did was right, but I understand why
they did it.”
•
Reference to Dylan Kiebold and Eric Harris regarding the Littleton,
Colorado school shootings, April 20, 1999.
School Violence Prevention
• Gun-free zone legislation.
• Develop safe routes to and from school
(police, business & parent volunteers).
• Campaign to break the student code-ofsilence with respect to weapons, et cetera.
• Metal detectors.
• Plastic see-through book bags.
• Standardized school incident report forms.
School Violence Prevention
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pre-arranged safe area for evacuated students.
School floor plan readily available.
Establish a parent staging area.
Prohibit book-bags in classrooms. (Leave them in
lockers.) Weapons are easily concealed in book-bags.
Cellular or digital telephone in the classroom for
emergency calls.
If practical, leave doors to hallways open during class so
that a passerby could notice and alert someone of
trouble in the classroom.
If trouble or gunfire erupts somewhere else in the school,
shut the classroom door if evacuation is not a safe
option. Do not send a student to investigate.
Effective discipline policy and Alternative Dispute
Resolution (ADR).
School Violence Prevention
• Personal-level intervention. Discussions with bullies and
victims.
• Establish a method for persons to report (anonymously)
suspicious activity.
• Whenever possible, eliminate dark, secluded and
unsupervised areas.
• Be aware of who is in the school and why.
• No one should be able to walk right into the office or
roam the halls.
• Set up reception areas for visitors.
• Install door sensors and cameras (target hardening).
• Establish a “safe room”. A safe room is a room where
faculty, staff, students, et cetera can go for assistance.
This room should have doors that will lock, more than
one way out and a telephone.
School Violence Prevention
• Social skills, anger management techniques training for
students.
• Establish a zero tolerance policy for violence,
threatening behavior, guns, drugs and alcohol.
• Institute an Anti-Bullying Program. Bullying is the
repeated, negative acts committed by one or more
children against another. The acts may be physical or
verbal. Studies suggest that there are both short and
enduring consequences of bullying for both the victims
and bullies. Chronically victimized students may, as
adults, be at increased risk for depression, poor selfesteem and other mental difficulties. Bullies have been
found to have a greater drop out rate and increased risk
for violence and delinquency.
• School level intervention. Increase supervision and
school-wide anti-bullying awareness and training.
School Violence Prevention
• Awareness. School officials must be sensitive to
mutterings of a potential confrontation. (Don’t explain
things away or rationalize!)
• Gangs.
• Drug-related.
• Personal animosity.
• Scheduled fights.
• Disgruntled parents or students.
• Disturbed students.
• Parent, Teacher, Public Safety and Student Quorums.
Establish periodic meetings to discuss issues and
concerns.
• Classroom level intervention. Class meetings and
discussions.
September 11, 2001
• Homeland Security Act of 2002Encourages cooperation between local,
state and federal agencies including
technology.
• Patriot Act of 2001-Allows for intelligence
sharing and grants to local and state
agencies.
Organizational Theory
1. Mutual benefit associations (labor
unions).
2. Business concerns (corporations).
3. Service organizations (community
centers).
4. Commonweal organizations (police, fire,
defense departments.
Mutual Benefit Associations
Faced with maintaining internal democratic
processes, providing for participation and
control by their membership.
Business
Main issue is to maximize profits and
creating and maintaing a competitive
advantage.
Service
Faced with the conflict between
administrative regulations and providing
the services judged by the professional to
be the most effective.
Commonweal
Key issue is to find a way to accommodate
pressures from two different sources,
external and internal.
Organizational Theories
1. Traditional (most police departments).
2. Open systems (counterpoint to traditional
theory).
3. Bridging theory (blend both).
Four Functions of Management
Planning
Choose Goals
Organizing
Controlling
Working together
Monitor & measure
Leading
Coordinate
Planning
Planning is the process used by managers to
identify and select appropriate goals and
courses of action for an organization.
3 steps to good planning :
1. Which goals should be pursued?
2. How should the goal be attained?
3. How should resources be allocated?
The planning function determines how effective and
efficient the organization is and determines the
strategy of the organization.
Organizing
• In organizing, managers create the structure of
working relationships between organizational
members that best allows them to work together
and achieve goals.
• Managers will group people into departments
according to the tasks performed.
–
Managers will also lay out lines of authority and
responsibility for members.
• An organizational structure is the outcome of
organizing. This structure coordinates and
motivates employees so that they work together to
achieve goals.
Leading
• In leading, managers determine direction,
state a clear vision for employees to
follow, and help employees understand
the role they play in attaining goals.
• Leadership involves a manager using
power, influence, vision, persuasion, and
communication skills.
• The outcome of the leading function is a
high level of motivation and commitment
from employees to the organization.
Controlling
• In controlling, managers evaluate how well the
organization is achieving its goals and takes
corrective action to improve performance.
• Managers will monitor individuals, departments,
and the organization to determine if desired
performance has been reached.
–
Managers will also take action to increase
performance as required.
• The outcome of the controlling function is the
accurate measurement of performance and
regulation of efficiency and effectiveness.
Three Levels of Management
Top
Managers
Middle
Managers
First-line Managers
Non-management
Managerial Skills
There are three skill sets that managers need
to perform effectively.
1. Conceptual skills: the ability to analyze and diagnose a
situation and find the cause and effect.
2. Human skills: the ability to understand, alter, lead, and
control people’s behavior.
3. Technical skills: the job-specific knowledge required to
perform a task. Common examples include marketing,
accounting, and manufacturing.
All three skills are enhanced through formal
training, reading, and practice.
Scientific Management
• Defined by Frederick Taylor, late
1800’s.
• The systematic study of the
relationships between people and tasks
to redesign the work for higher
efficiency.
–
Taylor sought to reduce the time a worker
spent on each task by optimizing the way the
task was done.
Management Science
Uses rigorous quantitative techniques to
maximize resources.
Quantitative management: utilizes linear
programming, modeling, simulation systems.
Operations management: techniques to
analyze all aspects of the production
system.
Total Quality Management (TQM): focuses
on improved quality.
Management Information Systems (MIS):
provides information about the organization.
4 principles of scientific management
Four Principles to increase efficiency:
1. Study the way the job is performed now &
determine new ways to do it.
Gather detailed, time and motion information.
Try different methods to see which is best.
2. Codify the new method into rules.
Teach to all workers.
3. Select workers whose skills match the rules set
in Step 2.
4. Establish a fair level of performance and pay for
higher performance.
Workers should benefit from higher output.
Problems with scientific management
• Managers often implemented only the
increased output side of Taylor’s plan.
–
–
–
They did not allow workers to share in increased
output.
Specialized jobs became very boring, dull.
Workers ended up distrusting Scientific Management.
• Workers could purposely “under-perform”
• Management responded with increased use
of machines.
Gilbreth’s refinement of SM
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth refined Taylor’s
methods.
Made many improvements to time and motion
studies.
Time and motion studies:
1. Break down each action into components.
2. Find better ways to perform it.
3. Reorganize each action to be more
efficient.
Gilbreths also studied fatigue problems, lighting,
heating and other worker issues.
Bureaucratic Model
Seeks to create an organization that
leads to both efficiency and
effectiveness.
Max Weber developed the concept of
bureaucracy.
A formal system of organization and
administration to ensure
effectiveness and efficiency.
5 Principles of Bureaucracy
Written rules
System of task
relationships
A Bureaucracy
should have
Fair evaluation
and reward
Hierarchy of
authority
Key points to bureaucracy
Authority is the power to hold people accountable for
their actions.
Positions in the firm should be held based on
performance not social contacts.
Position duties are clearly identified. People should
know what is expected of them.
Lines of authority should be clearly identified. Workers
know who reports to who.
Rules, Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), &
Norms used to determine how the firm operates.
• Sometimes, these lead to “red-tape” and other
problems.
Administrative Management
Seeks to create an organization that
leads to both efficiency and
effectiveness.
Henri Fayol, developed a set of 14 principles:
1. Division of Labor: allows for job specialization.
Fayol noted firms can have too much
specialization leading to poor quality and worker
involvement.
2. Authority and Responsibility: Fayol included both
formal and informal authority resulting from special
expertise.
3. Unity of Command: Employees should have only
one boss.
4. Line of Authority: a clear chain from top to bottom
of the firm.
5. Centralization: the degree to which authority rests
at the very top
Fayol’s Principles
6. Unity of Direction: One plan of action to guide the
organization.
7. Equity: Treat all employees fairly in justice and
respect.
8. Order: Each employee is put where they have the
most value.
9. Initiative: Encourage innovation.
10. Discipline: obedient, applied, respectful
employees needed.
Fayol’s Principles
11. Remuneration of Personnel: The payment
system contributes to success.
12. Stability of Tenure: Long-term
employment is important.
13. General interest over individual interest:
The organization takes precedence over the
individual.
14. Esprit de corps: Share enthusiasm or
devotion to the organization.
Open Systems Theory
Focuses on the way a manager should
personally manage to motivate employees.
Mary Parker Follett: an influential leader in early
managerial theory suggested:
• That workers help in analyzing their jobs for
improvements.
• The worker knows the best way to improve
the job.
• If workers have the knowledge of the task,
then they should control the task.
Open System
An open system interacts with the environment. A
closed system is self-contained.
Closed systems often undergo entropy and lose
the ability to control itself, and fails.
Synergy: performance gains of the whole surpass
the components.
Synergy is only possible in a coordinated system.
Mayo: The Hawthorne Studies
Study of worker efficiency at the Hawthorne Works
of the Western Electric Co. during 1924-1932.
Worker productivity was measured at various
levels of light illumination.
Researchers found that regardless of whether
the light levels were raised or lowered,
productivity rose.
Actually, it appears that the workers enjoyed the
attention they received as part of the study and
were more productive.
Theory X & Y
Douglas McGregor proposed the two different
sets of worker assumptions.
Theory X: Assumes the average worker is lazy,
dislikes work and will do as little as possible.
Managers must closely supervise and
control through reward and punishment.
Theory Y: Assumes workers are not lazy, want
to do a good job and the job itself will
determine if the worker likes the work.
Managers should allow the worker great
latitude, and create an organization to
stimulate the worker.
Maslow: The Need Theory
SelfActualization
Realize one’s
full potential
Use abilities
to the fullest
Esteem
Feel good
about oneself
Promotions
& recognition
Social
Interpersonal
Belongingness interaction, love relations, parties
Safety
Security, stability
Job security,
health insurance
Physiological
Food, water,
shelter
Basic pay level
to buy items
Need
What it means
Example
Herzberg: Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Focuses on outcomes that can lead to high motivation,
job satisfaction, & those that can prevent
dissatisfaction.
Motivator needs: related to nature of the work and
how challenging it is.
Outcomes are autonomy, responsibility,
interesting work.
Hygiene needs: relate to the physical &
psychological context of the work.
Refers to a good work environment, pay, job
security.
When hygiene needs not met, workers are
dissatisfied. Note: when met, they will NOT lead
to higher motivation, just will prevent low
motivation.
Equity Theory
Condition
Equity
Underpayment
Equity
Overpayment
Equity
Person
Outcomes
Inputs
Referent
= Outcomes
Inputs
Example
Worker contributes
more inputs but also
gets more outputs
than referent
Worker contributes
Outcomes < Outcomes more inputs but also
Inputs
Inputs
gets the same outputs
as referent
Outcomes > Outcomes
Inputs
Inputs
Worker contributes
same inputs but also
gets more outputs
than referent
The organization as an open system
Input Stage
Conversion
Stage
Output
Stage
Raw
Materials
Machines
Goods
Services
Human skills
Sales of outputs
Firm can then buy inputs
Bridging Theories – Contingency
Theory
Assumes there is no one best way to manage.
The environment impacts the organization and
managers must be flexible to react to
environmental changes.
The way the organization is designed, control
systems selected, depend on the environment.
Technological environments change rapidly, so
must managers.
Bridging Theories – Theory Z
William Ouchi researched the cultural differences
between Japan and USA. USA culture emphasizes
the individual, and managers tend to feel workers
follow the Theory X model.
Japan culture expects worker committed to the
organization first and thus behave differently
than USA workers.
Theory Z combines parts of both the USA and
Japan structure.
Managers stress long-term employment, workgroup, and organizational focus.
Varying Traditional and Open Systems
Wheel Network
Circle Network
Chain Network
All Channel Network
Management Development
Org. Environment
Management Science
Behavioral Management
Administrative Management
Scientific Management
1940
2000